Proto-language
| *m | *n | ||
| *p | *t | *ʈ | *k |
| *s | |||
| *v | *r | *ɣ |
| *i |
| *o |
Historical phonology
Retraction
ʈ → ʂ → x
Breaking
i o → ia a / _{v r j}
Lengthening
V → Vː / _{r s}
r s → ∅ / _$
Palatalization
m n → ɲʷ ɲ / _i
p t k → tʃʷ tʃ kʲ / _i
s x → ʃ xʲ / _i
v r ɣ → ʒ ʒ j / _i
Labialization
m n → mʷ nʷ / _o
p t k → pʷ tʷ kʷ / _o
s x → sʷ xʷ / _o
v r ɣ → w rʷ ɣʷ / _o
Uvularization
kʷ xʷ ɣʷ → qʷ χʷ ʁʷ → q χ ʁ
Velarization
mʷ pʷ → ŋʷ kʷ
Vowel merger
i → ɨ
ia o → e o → ə
Apocope
ɨ ə a → ∅ / _#
Linking schwa
∅ → ə / C#_C
Vowel coloring
ɨ ə a → i e ɛ / _{ɲ tʃ kʲ ʃ xʲ ʒ j ɣ}
ɨ ə a → u o ɔ / _{m nʷ ŋʷ p tʷ kʷ sʷ w rʷ ɲʷ tʃʷ v}
Monophthongization
iɣ eɣ ɛɣ → iː eː ɛː / _$
uv ov ɔv → uː oː ɔː / _$
{i e ɛ} + {j ɣ} → j / _V
{u o ɔ} + {w v} → w / _V
Vowel shift
ɨ ə a → e ɛ a
u o ɔ → o ɔ a
Retroflex creation
nʷ → ɳ
tʷ tʃ tʃʷ → ʈ
sʷ ʃ → ʂ
rʷ ʒ → ʐ
Coronal shift
ʈ t → t̠ t̪ → t θ
Further consonant simplification
kʲ xʲ → c ç
ɲʷ ŋʷ kʷ → ɲ ŋ k
q χ → ʔ h
ɣ ʁ → w r
v → f
Final phonology
| consonants | labial | dental | alveolar | retroflex | palatal | velar | glottal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nasal | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ŋ | ||
| stop | p | t | c | k | ʔ | ||
| fricative | f | θ | s | ʂ | ç | x | h |
| sonoric | r | ʐ | j | w |
| vowels | front | back |
|---|---|---|
| high | i iː | |
| mid-hiɡh | e eː | o oː |
| mid-low | ɛ ɛː | ɔ ɔː |
| low | a aː |
Final orthography
| consonants | labial | dental | alveolar | retroflex | palatal | velar | glottal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nasal | m | n | ṇ | ñ | ŋ | ||
| stop | p | t | c | k | q | ||
| fricative | f | þ | s | ṣ | ç | x | h |
| sonoric | r | z | y | w |
| vowels | front | back |
|---|---|---|
| high | iè ie | |
| mid-hiɡh | ì i | ù u |
| mid-low | è e | ò o |
| low | à a |
Sandhi
On the word boundary, between two consonant, an epenthetic vowel is added:
/ɛ/ e- before n k (*koR-) q þ s x h r
/e/ i- before ñ t (*ti-) c ṣ (*si-) ç z (*ri-)
/ɔ/ o- before m ṇ ŋ p t (*pi-, *to-) k (*po-) ṣ (*so-) z (*vi-, *ro-)
nothing before y w