Verbal morphology developed by a process of stress-reduction and analogy, combined with reduction of the verb agreement markers.
Coverbs
Coverbs are verbal elements that are used to modify another verb or subverb, to which they are prefixed. They do not specify any particular action in themselves. There may be more than one coverb modifying a verb or subverb, where the coverbs are ordered in increasing significance. However, there is usually just one coverb in a clause, only occasionally two, and much more rarely more than two. Coverbs cannot be used by themselves or in places where a normal verb is required, e.g. subverbs prefixed by coverbs must still in turn be prefixed by a verb stem composed of a main verb and zero or more subverbs. Note that coverbs typically go before incorporated nouns, which are treated as part of the verb itself.
Coverbs preceding main verbs modify the main verbs themselves, and in turn are modified by any following subverbs. Coverbs preceding subverbs specifically modify the subverb in question and not the main verb.
Manner adjectival verbs from verbs
Any imperfective verb can become intransitive simply by omitting any arguments other than the subject, and hence becomes equivalent to a manner adjectival verb automatically as long as arguments are omitted. However, perfective verbs cannot be used as manner adjectival verbs automatically unless the following ending:
dzo
is added, which results in a corresponding manner adjectival verb that is imperfective and intransitive.
Adjectival verbs from nouns
A noun can be converted into an adjectival verb indicating something with the quality of that noun with the following suffix attached to the fourth principal part:
ła
Verbs formed by this are imperfective.
Verbal format
Stem - Verb agreement/imperative mood - Non-imperative mood
Verb agreement
This developed first by omission of verb agreement markers that were not SAPs except a 3rd person subject with all other arguments also being 3rd person, combined with subsequent merger of adjacent verb agreement markers.
Secondarily, subjects which are relative or which are 2nd person singular imperative subjects are also omitted. If this results in no arguments being considered, verb agreement is omitted altogether.
1st person subject
Singular: de, Dual: dè, Plural: dî
2nd person subject
Singular: ne, Dual: nè, Plural: nî
3rd person subject, all other arguments are also 3rd person
Gender A
Singular: je, Dual: zå, Plural: ze
Gender B
Singular: ře, Dual: zie, Plural: zi
Gender C
Singular: řo, Dual: zuo, Plural: zu
1st person direct object
Singular: vi, Dual: vè, Plural: vî
2nd person direct object
Singular: le, Dual: lå, Plural: le
Reflexive direct object
Singular: ńe, Dual: ńè, Plural: ńî
1st person indirect object
Singular: dźî, Dual: dźè, Plural: gû
2nd person indirect object
Singular: jî, Dual: jè, Plural: ǧû
Reflexive indirect object
Singular: vî, Dual: vè, Plural: vû
1st person subject, 2nd person direct object
Singular: ća, Dual: ćè, Plural: ćê
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person subject, reflexive direct object
Singular: ća, Dual: ćè, Plural: ćê
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person subject, 1st person direct object
Singular: nè, Dual: nè, Plural: nê
2nd person subject, reflexive direct object
Singular: ńè, Dual: ńè, Plural: ńê
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person subject, 2nd person indirect object
Singular: ta, Dual: cè, Plural: cê
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person subject, reflexive indirect object
Singular: ta, Dual: cè, Plural: cê
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person subject, 1st person indirect object
Singular: nè, Dual: nè, Plural: nê
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person subject, reflexive indirect object
Singular: nè, Dual: nè, Plural: nê
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person direct object, 2nd person indirect object
Singular: dźê, Dual: dźè, Plural: gô
(Number is for indirect object agreement.)
1st person direct object, reflexive indirect object
Singular: vê, Dual: vè, Plural: vô
(Number is for indirect object agreement.)
2nd person direct object, 1st person indirect object
Singular: ćê, Dual: ćè, Plural: ćô
(Number is for indirect object agreement.)
2nd person direct object, reflexive indirect object
Singular: vê, Dual: vè, Plural: vô
(Number is for indirect object agreement.)
Reflexive direct object, 1st person indirect object
Singular: ćê, Dual: ćè, Plural: ćô
(Number is for indirect object agreement.)
Reflexive direct object, 2nd person indirect object
Singular: dźê, Dual: dźè, Plural: dźô
(Number is for indirect object agreement.)
1st person subject, 2nd person direct object, reflexive indirect object
Singular: ve, Dual: vè, Plural: vî
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person subject, 1st person direct object, reflexive indirect object
Singular: ve, Dual: vè, Plural: vî
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person subject, reflexive direct object, 2nd person indirect object
Singular: dźe, Dual: dźè, Plural: dźî
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person subject, reflexive direct object, 1st person indirect object
Singular: će, Dual: ćè, Plural: ćî
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person imperative subject
Dual: mè, Plural: mi
2nd person imperative subject
Dual: ǧå, Plural: je
1st person imperative subject, 2nd person direct object
Dual: mè, Plural: mi
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person imperative subject, reflexive direct object
Dual: mè, Plural: mi
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person imperative subject, 2nd person indirect object
Dual: mè, Plural: mi
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person imperative subject, reflexive indirect object
Dual: mè, Plural: mi
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person imperative subject, 1st person direct object
Dual: gå, Plural: dźè
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person imperative subject, reflexive direct object
Dual: dźå, Plural: dźè
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person imperative subject, 1st person indirect object
Dual: gå, Plural: dźè
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person imperative subject, reflexive indirect object
Dual: gå, Plural: dźè
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person imperative subject, 2nd person direct object, reflexive indirect objectt
Dual: vè, Plural: vi
(Number is for subject agreement.)
1st person imperative subject, reflexive direct object, 2nd person indirect object
Dual: dźè, Plural: dźi
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person imperative subject, 1st person direct object, reflexive indirect object
Dual: vå, Plural: ve
(Number is for subject agreement.)
2nd person imperative subject, reflexive direct object, 1st person indirect object
Dual: ćå, Plural: će
(Number is for subject agreement.)
Perfectivity
Perfectvity is inherent in an individual verb, and auxiliaries must be used to modify perfectivity.
Mood
Indicative
A nominative agreement marker is present, and no other mood-specific markers.
Imperative
The imperative is marked with the verb agreement marker. In the dual and plural 1st and 2nd persons special forms are provided for it; for the singular 2nd person it is marked just by not providing any agreement with the subject (and no agreement marker at all if no other 1st or reflexive persons are present).
Subjunctive
vå
Optative
ma
Agent nouns from verbs
A verb can be converted to a noun that marks its agent with this suffix placed after its perfective stem (and any causative marker, which may be used):
min / miń / min / mine / mine / mine
This can be used with adjectival verbs, to create nouns that are what those verbs specify, and with causatives of adjectival nouns, to create nouns that make something else be what those verbs specify.
Nouns formed by this take gender C.
Patient nouns from verbs
jet / jec / jet / jece / jece / jece
Nouns formed by this take gender B.
Implements employed for verbs
ven / veń / ven / vene / vene / vene
Nouns formed by this take gender B.
Characteristic locations of verbs
juk / juć / juk / juke / juke / juke
Nouns formed by this take gender A.
Characteristic substances, items involved in verbs
źeg / źedź / źeg / źedźe / źedźe / źedźe
Nouns formed by this take gender A.
Result nouns from verbs
Noun indicating the result of an action:
nes / nes / nes / nese / nese / nese
Nouns formed by this take gender B.
Abstract nouns from verbs
Noun indicating an action in abstract:
let / lec / let / leci / leci / leci
or:
zeh / ześ / zeh / zehe / zehe / zehe
Nouns formed by this take gender C.
Instance nouns from verbs
meg / medź / meg / mege / mege / mege
or:
vek / već / vek / veće / veće / veće
Nouns formed by this take gender C.
Property nouns from adjectival verbs
tur / tuź / tur / tuźe / tuźe / tuźe
Nouns formed by this take gender C.
Adverbs from charcteristic manner of adjectival verbs
źi
Interrogative
The following clitic is placed after any imperfective marker or mood marker in the last clause in a sentence:
pa