Anthologica Universe Atlas / Universes / Future Earth / Germanic / North American English / Phonology
Initial state
Phonemes
(Note that not all dialects have all the distinctions mentioned below.)
Vowels
Monophthongs
/æ ɛ ɪ i ɐ ə ɨ ɑ ɔ ʊ u/
Diphthongs
/eɪ aɪ aʊ ɔɪ oʊ/
Consonants
Fortis plosives
/p t tʃ k/
Lenis plosives
/b d dʒ ɡ/
Fortis fricatives
/ʍ f θ s ʃ h/
Lenis fricatives
/v ð z ʒ/
Nasals
/m n ŋ/
Liquids
/r l/
Semivowels
/w j/
Relevant phonological processes
Vowel length allophony
Most dialects have lost historical vowel length. In these dialects, vowel length has become allophonic, such that if a fortis obstruent appears before the next vowel after a vowel and not preceded by an lenis obstruent, the vowel is realized as short, and otherwise the vowel is realized as long. Note that with the following phonological rules this becomes frozen, such that it is no longer predictable from environment.
Vowel nasalization
All vowels and /r/ nasalize if preceding a nasal consonant or a nasalized vowel or /r/.
Variation in offglide closeness of /eɪ oʊ/
When not monopthongized, /eɪ oʊ/ tend to be realized as [eɪ̯ oʊ̯] before consonants and as [ei̯ ou̯] before vowels and finally.
Voicing assimilation
Clusters of adjacent obstruents assimilate together to agree in voicing. In many dialects, voicelessness is favored, such that if one obstruent in a cluster is voiceless, all obstruents in the cluster become voiceless.
Ongoing sound changes
Cot-caught merger
Merger of /ɑ ɔ/ > [ɑ~ɒ], in most dialects, or [ɒː], in Eastern New England English.
Northern cities vowel shift
Shift of /ɑ/ > [a] (which may not happen adjacent to /r w h kw gw/), /æ/ > [ɛ~e̯ɛ~i̯ɛ~eə̯~iə̯] (in all environments), /ɛ/ > [ɛ̠~ɜ̟~ɜ~ɐ], /ɪ ɨ/ not before /r/> [ɘ], /ɐ/ > [ʌ], and /ɔ/ not before /r/ > [ɒ~ɑ].
Fronting of /ʊ u/ and fronting/opening of /oʊ/
In many dialects /ʊ u/ > [ʉ̞ ʉ] or even [ʏ y]. Likewise, the starting point of /oʊ/ has opened and fronted, to [ɐʊ̯] or even [ɛʊ̯], and the end point may also be centralized, to [ɐʉ̯] to [ɛʉ̯].
Canadian Raising
There are two types of Canadian Raising, the raising of just /aɪ/ or the raising of both /aɪ aʊ/. In dialects that have raising it always occurs before fortis obstruents within morphemes, but in certain words, based on rather dialect-specific rules, may also have raising before lenis obstruents in places. /aɪ/ is typically raised to something like [əɪ̯], while, depending on dialect, /aʊ/ may be raised to something like [əʊ̯] or something like [ɛʉ̯].
Vocalization of /l/
/l/ in coda positions is vocalized, to, depending on dialect and environment, [ɰ~w~ɯ̞̯~ʊ̯~ɤ̯~o̯]. In certain dialects, it may also be vocalized intervocalically, even sometimes in onsets (to [ɰ]). After vowels, the vowel plus the resulting glide is treated as one length longer than the original vowel, such that short vowels become long, and long vowels become overlong. In all dialects with /l/ vocalization, /ə/ together with coda /l/ > [ɯ̞~ʊ] and /ə/ followed by, but not including, intervocalic /l/ > [ɯ̞~ʊ], with the exact realization depending on the exact dialect; here the /l/ is not treated as adding an extra unit of length.
Pin-pen merger
Dialects may merge /ɛn ɪn/ to [ɪn].
Elision of unstressed intervocalic /t d n nt nd/
Some dialects may elide unstressed intervocalic /t d n nt nd/ and unstressed /t d n/ when preceded by /r/ and followed by a vowel, with various forms of coalescence of the resulting adjacent vowels occurring, e.g. lax vowels forming diphthongs with following vowels or, if followed by /ə/, assimilating with it to form a longer vowel (i.e. long if previously short, overlong if previous long). The preceding vowel or /r/ or resulting diphthong or lengthened vowel is nasalized if /n nt nd/ is elided. This occurs across word boundaries, typically when word-final.
In some of these dialects, the following diphthongs are formed from the following preceding vowels and following vowels:
| /i/ | /ə ɨ/* | /ə ɨ/** | /ɔ oʊ ʊ u/ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| /æ/ | [i̯ɛi̯] | [i̯ɛɘ̯] | [i̯ɛ] | [i̯ɛɔ̯] |
| /ɛ/ | [ɜi̯] | [ɜɘ̯] | [ɜ] | [ɜɔ̯] |
| /ɪ/ | [ɘi̯] | [ɘ] | [ɘə̯] | [ɘo̯] |
| /ɐ/ | [ʌi̯] | [ʌɘ̯] | [ʌ] | [ʌɔ̯] |
| /ɑ/ | [ai̯] | [aɘ̯] | [a] | [aɔ̯] |
| /ɔ/ | [ɒi̯~ɑi̯] | [ɒ~ɑ] | [ɒɐ̯~ɑɐ̯] | [ɒɔ̯~ɑɔ̯] |
| /ʊ/ | [ʊi̯] | [ʊɘ̯] | [ʊə̯] | [ʊ] |
* when they would be realized as [ɘ]
** when they would be realized as [ə]
Elision of preplosive and final /n/
Some dialects may elide /n/ before plosives and finally. The preceding vowel or resulting diphthong is nasalized. Note that elided final /n/ may resurface as [n] or another nasal if the word in question is followed by another word starting in a something other than a coronal plosive.
Reduction of the verb 'can'
The verb 'can' is reduced to /kɨn/, before vowel mergers and /n/ elision are applied.
Reduction of final /nd/, /ld/, and /st/
In many dialects, final /nd/ > [n], /ld/ > [ɫ~w~ɰ], and /st/ >
Reduction of unstressed intervocalic /rt rd rn/
In many dialects, unstressed /rt rd rn/ are reduced to some allophone of /r/, except that it is nasalized in the case of /rn/.
Reduction of unstressed intervocalic /nd/
In many dialects, when not elided, frequently unstressed intervocalic /nd/ > [n], except when split by a morpheme boundary.
Reduction of unstressed intervocalic /ld/
In some dialects, unstressed intervocalid /ld/ > [ɫ~w~ɰ], except when split by a morpheme boundary.
Reduction of unstressed intervocalic /st/
In some dialects, unstressed intervocalic /st/ > [sː] or, depending on dialect, [sʲː], except when split by a morpheme boundary.
Assimilation of /t d/ to following consonants
In many dialects, postvocalic /t d/ assimilate to following consonants, resulting in the following consonant being lengthened while retaining POA and MOA, the preceding vowel retaining its length, the following consonant being preglottalized if the assimilating consonant was /t/, and the following consonant being devoiced if the assimilating consonant was /t/.
/t/ assimilates to other plosives. /d/ assimilates to other plosives, nasals, and approximants, with the exception that in many dialects /d/ > [dʒ] before /r/ unless it was originally separated from /r/ by a vowel and was flapped as a result.
Notably, unstressed /di/ before another vowel becomes [jː].
Assimilation of /nj/
In some dialects, /nj/ and unstressed /ni/ before another vowel become [jː] with the preceding vowel being left as nasalized.
Assimilation of /bm bəm dn dən/
In many dialects, /bm bəm/ > [mː] and /dn dən/ > [nː], including across word boundaries. Note that preceding vowels remain unnasalized.
Affrication of /tr dr/
In many dialects, /tr/ > [tʃɻ~tʂɹ] and /dr/ > [dʒɻ~dʐɹ].
Affrication and assimilation of /str/
In many dialects that affricate /tr/, /str/ > [ʃtʃɻ] or, if they palatalize /ʃtʃ/, [ɕtɕɻ].
Palatalize of coronals
In some dialects, alveolars can become palatalized and postalveolars can become alveolopalatal in certain environments.
In these dialects, /s z/ > [sʲ zʲ] and /ʃ ʒ/ > [ɕ ʑ] before /p b t d tʃ dʒ m n r l w/ and after /k ɡ r l/.
Also in these dialects, all alveolars become palatalizdd and all postalveolars become alveolopalatal before /w u ʊ ər/.
Sporadically, in these dialects, palatalized /t d/, but especially /t/, can become [tsʲ~tɕ dzʲ~dʑ], depending on the speaker and their exact dialect.
In these dialects, alveolars adjacent to palatalized alveolars or alveolopalatals become palatalized and postalveolars adjacent to palatalized alveolars or alveolopalatals become alveolopalatal.
Elision of unstressed intervocalic lenis fricatives
Certain dialects may in certain words elide unstressed intervocalic lenis fricatives, particularly but not necessarily before /ər/.
Final devoicing and partial fortition
In some dialects, final lenis obstruents not followed by vowels (and some which are) that are not elided are devoiced and become equal in length to their fortis counterparts. However, they are still distinguished from their fortis counterparts by being preceded by long vowels, and in the case of final plosives not preceded by obstruents, lacking preglottalization.
Lenition of final fortis plosives followed by vowels
Final fortis plosives /p t tʃ k/ followed by vowel are lenited to [b̥ ɾ d̥ʒ̊ ɡ̊].
Merger of /ə ɨ/
In some dialects, /ə ɨ/ merge into a single phoneme. The realization of this phoneme though may vary with environment and morpheme boundaries, such that [ə ɨ~ɘ] are both still realized.
One pattern, in the dialect of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is as follows (where V is historical /ə ɨ/):
{C, 0}V{p, b, w} takes [ə]
{C, 0}Vm takes [ə] or syllabification of the following consonant
(C, 0)V{r, l} where the {r, l} falls on a syllable coda takes syllabification/vocalization of the following consonant
{C. 0}V{r, l} where the {r, l} falls on a syllable onset takes [ə] or syllabification/vocalization of the following consonant
{C, 0}V# where that preceding the boundary is not a prefix takes [ə]
rV{f, t, d, s, z, tʃ, dʒ, k, ɡ, ŋ} takes [ə̝]
rVn takes [ə̝] or syllabification of the following consonant
rVv takes [ə]
lV{f, t, d, s, z, tʃ, dʒ, k, ɡ, ŋ} takes [ə̝]
lVn takes [ə̝] or syllabification of the following consonant
lVv takes [ə]
CV{f, v, t, d, s, z, tʃ, dʒ, k, ɡ, ŋ} takes [ɘ]
tVn takes syllabification of the following consonant
CVn takes [ɘ] or syllabification of the following consonant
Initial V{f, v} takes [ə]
Initial V{t, d, s, z, tʃ, dʒ, k, ɡ, ŋ} takes [ə̝]
Initial Vn takes [ɘ] or syllabification of the following consonant
Fronting of /u ʊ/ after coronals
In dialects that normally preserve back realization of close back vowels, after coronals and not before coronals, /u ʊ/ become [ʉ̯u ʉ̞̯ʊ] or, when stressed, even [y̯u ʏ̯ʊ] or [i̯u ɪ̯ʊ], and, between coronals, [ʉ ʉ̞].
Lenition of intervocalic /p t tʃ k/
Unstressed intervocalic /p t tʃ k/ become [b̥ ɾ d̥ʒ̊ ɡ̊].
Other relevant variations
Frontness/backness of the starting point of /aʊ/
In many dialects, /aʊ/ approaches [æʊ̯], while in other dialects, notably of the Upper Midwest, /aʊ/ is more like [ɑʊ̯].
Monophthongal realizations of /eɪ oʊ/
Dialects may realize /eɪ oʊ/ as [e o] in particular environments, such as before consonants, or in all environments. Dialects that do this are likely to preserve back realizations of /oʊ/.
Varying realizations of /r/
In most dialects, /r/ is realized as [ɹʷ ɻʷ] initially and otherwise as [ɹ ɻ], except that it may rhoticize preceding vowels.
In some Upper Midwestern dialects, /r/ may be [ʁʷ~ɹ͡ʁʷ~ɻ͡ʁʷ] initially, [ɹ͡ʁ~ɻ͡ʁ] after coronals, [ʁ] after consonants other than coronals, and otherwise [ʁˤ].
Phonology (circa 2050)
Sound changes
Elision of coda /m ŋ/
Coda /m ŋ/ are elided except before sibilant fricatives, leaving the preceding vowel nasalized. This takes before unstressed vowel denasalization.
Opening of nasalized /i u ul/
Nasalized /i u ul/, if not diphthongized, merge with nasalized /ɪ ʊ ʊl/ to become [ẽ ø̃ õ] or [ẽ õ õ] depending on whether /u/ is fronted or not. This takes place before unstressed vowel denasalization.
Unstressed vowel denasalization
Unstressed vowels lose nasalization except where adjacent to nasalized stressed vowels. This results in a phonemic split of /ə~ɘ/ into /ə/ and /ɘ/, particularly word-finally.
Merger of /aʊ oʊ/
In dialects with both a front realization of /aʊ/ and fronting/opening of /oʊ/, such as dialects related to General American, they are merged to [æʉ̯].
Preserving of back rounded vowels before /l/
/ɔl oʊl ʊl ul/ become [ɒo̯ oʊ̯ ʊ uʊ̯~u] even where /ʊ u/ are otherwise fronted and /oʊ/ is otherwise fronted and opened.
Completion of fronting /ʊ u/
In dialects related to General American, /ʊ u/ complete becoming [ʏ y].
Opening of /eɪ/ in dialects that do not monophthongize it
In dialects that do not monophthongize /eɪ/, it is opened to [ɛɪ̯] before consonants, [ɛi̯] before vowels and finally.
Opening of /oʊ/ in dialects that do not front/open it
In dialects that preserve a back /oʊ/, it is opened to [ɔ], if monophthongized, or [ɔʊ̯] before consonants, [ɔu̯] before vowels or finally, if not.
Opening of /oʊl/
/oʊl/ is opened to [ɔʊ̯~ɔu̯].
Elision of final postvocalic /d/
In many dialects, final postvocalic /d/ is elided. The preceding vowel remains long regardless of what follows.
Development of pitch accent
There are several sources of pitch accent:
Primary stressed syllables that are glottalized, whether from an original syllable or the merger of the stressed syllable and a following glottalized syllable (in dialects that have syllable merger), receive high pitch accent.
Primary stressed syllables formed by the merger of the stressed syllable and a following syllable which is not glottalized (in dialects that have syllable merger) receive falling pitch accent.
Primary stressed syllables formed by the merger of a preceding syllable and the stressed syllable (in dialects that have syllable merger) receive rising pitch accent.
All other primary stressed syllables receive low pitch accent.
Devoicing of lenis plosives
In many northerly dialects, /b d dʒ ɡ/ are devoiced to [b̥ d̥ d̥ʒ̊ ɡ̊] if they are not already such, except finally in dialects with final devoicing, where they instead already are [p t tʃ k].
Reduction of morpheme-initial /st/
Morpheme-initial /st/ becomes [s̻].
Phonology (circa 2100)
Opening of /ɪ ʊ əl ɨl ʊ{t d n nt nd}{i ə ɨ} /
In dialects without the NCVS, /ɪ/ not before /r/ is opened to [e].
In dialects with fronting of /ʊ/, /ʊ/ is opened to [ø].
In dialects without fronting of /ʊ/, /ʊ/ is opened to [o].
/əl ɨl/ including coda /l/ and /ə ɨ/ before onset /l/ are opened to [o ɤ] depending on whether they are preceded by /w ɔ oʊ aʊ/ or not.
/ʊl/ is opened to [o].
Stressed /ʊ{t d n nt nd}i/ is opened to [oi̯].
Stressed /ʊ{t d n nt nd}{ə ɨ}/ is opened to [oɘ̯ oə̯].
Shortening of unstressed vowels following a long vowel with primary or secondary stress
When a vowel with primary or secondary stress is long, and the following syllable also has a long vowel, the following vowel is shortened.
This contributes to the phonemic splitting of /aʊ/ into /ɑɔ/, not before historical fortis obstruents, and /ʌo/, before historical fortis obstruents, in some Upper Midwestern dialects, through decoupling vowel length from the realization thereof.
Merger of long and overlong vowels
Long and overlong vowels merge to long vowels except in unstressed final syllables not closed by obstruents or geminates and before consonant clusters and geminates.
Shortening of vowels before consonant clusters and long consonants
Long vowels before consonant clusters or geminates become short and overlong vowels before consonant clusters or geminates become long.
Shortening of unstressed final syllable long and overlong vowels
Long and overlong vowels in unstressed final syllables not closed by an obstruent or geminate become short and long respectively.
This contributes to the phonemic splitting of /aʊ/ into /ɑɔ/, not before historical fortis obstruents, and /ʌo/, before historical fortis obstruents, in some Upper Midwestern dialects, through decoupling vowel length from the realization thereof.
Lengthening of stressed final syllables not closed by obstruents
Vowels in all stressed final syllables not closed by obstruents become long.
Shortening of unstressed /ə ɨ/ not before /l/
Long unstressed /ə ɨ/ is shortened.
Diphthongization of long /i u ul/
In many dialects, but not the dialects of the Upper Midwest, long /i u ul/ become [ɪi̯ ʏy̯ ʊu̯].
Lenition of unstressed intervocalic /b dʒ ɡ/
In dialects without devoicing of lenis obstruents, unstressed intervocalic and intersonorant, including word-finally when followed by a vowel, /b dʒ ɡ/ are lenited to [β ʒ ɣ].
Phonology (circa 2150)
Opening of diphthongal long /i u ul/
In dialects with diphthongization of long /i u ul/, they are further opened to [əi̯ əy̯ əu̯].
Loss of glottalization
Glottalization is lost excluding [ʔ] from /t/.
Merger of unstressed intervocalic /b v/
Unstressed intervocalic /b v/, including word-finally when followed by a vowel, in dialects with frication of unstressed intervocalic /b/ merge to [v].
Coalescence of plosive clusters
Plosive clusters where the first plosive is not an affricate are turned into long consonants taking the quality of the second consonant, and in dialects that preserve voicing of plosives, are voiceless if either consonant was voiceless and otherwise are voiced. This operates across word boundaries.
Rounded realization of after /w/ and before /l/
In Upper Midwestern dialects, after /w/ and before /l/, /ɔ/ remains rounded as [ɒ] (otherwise it is unrounded as [ɑ]).
Palatalization of /k ɡ/ before /j i eɪ æ/ or /j i ɪ/
In Upper Midwestern dialects /k/ palatalizes to [tɕ] or, unstressed after a vowel, to [d̥ʑ̥] and /ɡ/ palatalizes to [d̥ʑ̥] before /j i eɪ æ/. The preceding consonant does not assimilate to the POA of the consonant, including with respect to palatalization and palatoalveolar/alveolopalatal articulation.
In GA-like dialects, /k/ palatalizes to [tɕ] or, unstressed after a vowel, to [d̥ʑ̥] and /ɡ/ palatalizes to [dʑ] before /j i ɪ/.
Vowel inventory
Northern dialects
Unstressed monophthongs
There is a single monophthong which can only be unstressed, and which then is always short, and which may be nasalized or unnasalized.
/ə ɘ/
Monophthongs
These monophthongs can be short or long, nasalized or unnasalized, except /i u/, which cannot be nasalized.
/e i a ɜ ɘ ɑ~ɒ ʌ ɔ~ɔu̯ o~ö̯o~ö u~ʉ̯u~ʉ/
Monophthongs before /r/
The following monophthongs are found before /r/, which may be short or long, nasalized or unnasalized.
/ɛ̝ ɪ a ɜ ə ɘ ɑ~ɒ ʌ ɔ ɤ o~ö̯o~ö o u~ʉ̯u~ʉ/
Diphthongs and triphthongs
These diphthongs and triphthongs can be short or long, nasalized or unnasalized.
/ae̯ i̯ɛ əe̯ ɑɔ̯ ʌo̯ ɔɪ̯ i̯ɛɤ̯ eɯ̞̯ iɯ̞̯ aɤ̯ ɜɤ̯ ɘɯ̞̯ ɒo̯ ʌɤ̯ ɔʊ̯ uʊ̯ i̯ɛi̯ i̯ɛɘ̯ i̯ɛɔ̯ ɜi̯ ɜɘ̯ ɜɔ̯ ɘi̯ ɘə̯ ɘo̯ ʌi̯ ʌɘ̯ ʌɔ̯ ai̯ aɘ̯ aɔ̯ ɑi̯ ɑɘ̯ oi̯ oɘ̯ oə̯/
GA-descended dialects
Unstressed monophthongs
There are two monophthongs which can only be unstressed, and which are only short, and which may be nasalized or unnasalized.
/ə ɨ/
Monophthongs
These monophthongs can be short or long, nasalized or unnasalized, except /i u/, which cannot be nasalized.
/æ ɛ e ø i y ɐ ɑ o u/
Monophthongs before /r/
The following monophthongs are found before /r/, which may be short or long, nasalized or unnasalized.
/ɛ ɪ ə ɑ ɔ ʊ/
Diphthongs
These diphthongs can be short or long, nasalized or unnasalized.
/aɪ̯~əɪ̯ ɛɪ̯~ɛi̯ æʉ̯ ɔɪ̯ æʊ̯ ɛʊ̯ eʊ̯ iu̯ ɑʊ̯ ɔʊ̯/
Phonology (circa 2200)
Accent retraction
If there is a long vowel in a syllable preceding the accented syllable, the preceding syllable containing a long vowel closest to the accented syllable receives a rising pitch accent.
Coda, intervocalic, and syllabic /r/ pharyngealization
(In Upper Midwestern dialects)
Coda, intervocalic, and syllabic /r/ develops pharyngeal secondary articulation. Combined with medial reduced vowel elision this results in a phonemic split into /r/ and /rˤ/.
Medial reduced vowel elision
/ə ɘ/, in Upper Midwestern dialects, and /ə ɨ/, in GA-like dialects, are elided where it is present in VC*_C*V, where the preceding vowel is short or the preceding consonant is a sonorant, and where the resulting consonant sequence would be allowed between vowels. If the vowel elided is preceded by the syllable with primary accent, the primary accented syllable receives falling pitch accent. In Upper Midwestern dialects, in the resulting consonant cluster if obstruents become adjacent they undergo fortition.The preceding consonant, if a nasal, is then elided if the following consonant is not a sibilant fricative. The preceding consonant, if a stop, assimilates to the following consonant if it is a plosive. Larger consonant clusters are allowed if constituents include /rˤ/ in Upper Midwestern dialects.
* any sequence of consonants.
In Upper Midwestern dialects, new clusters of previously non-palatalized/non-alveolopalatal consonants do not become palatalized/alveolopalatal, rendering the palatalization and palatoalveolar/alveolopalatal distinction phonemic (beyond already being marginally phonemic in supposed to [ˈs̺pɔsʲːə] and has to [ˈ(h)i̯ɛstə]).
Note that /r/ may only occur at the end of medial clusters but /rˤ/ is permitted in all positions in medial clusters
Note that geminates may not be incorporated into larger consonant clusters.
/i u/ desyllabification
Unstressed /i/ becomes [j] and unstressed /u/ becomes [w] before another vowel. A preceding /j/ either coalesces with the preceding consonant, or is otherwise elided. If the /i/ or /u/ precedes the stressed vowel, the stressed vowel receives a rising pitch accent, unless it already had falling pitch accent, where then it receives rising-falling pitch accent.
Central low vowel fronting and central open-mid vowel opening
In Upper Midwestern dialects, /a/ > [æ], /aɤ̯/ > [æ], /ai̯/ > [æi̯], and /aɘ̯/ > [æɘ̯].
Close-mid /l/ offglide loss
In Upper Midwestern dialects, /i̯ɛɤ̯/ > [i̯ɛ], /aɤ̯/ > [æ], /ɜɤ̯/ > [ɜ], /ɒo̯/ > [ɒ], and /ʌɤ̯/ > [ʌ] except before another vowel, including across morpheme and word boundaries.
Opening diphthong monopthongization
In Upper Midwestern dialects, /ae̯/ > [ɛ], /əe̯/ > [e], /ɑɔ̯/ > [ɒ], and /ʌo̯/ > [ɔ].
In GA-like dialects, /aɪ̯~əɪ̯/ becomes, not before fortis obstruents, [ɛɪ̯] before consonants and [ɛi̯] before vowels and finally, and remains [əɪ̯] before fortis obstruents.
Opening/retraction of vowels before and after /rˤ/
In Upper Midwestern dialects, for the vowels before and after (even with intervening consonants) /rˤ/, /ɛ̝/ > [æ], /e/ > [ɛ], /ɪ/ > [e], /i/ > [e], /a/ > [a]*, /ɜ/ > [a], /ə/ > [ɐ], /ɘ/ > [ɜ], /ɑ/ > [ɑ]*, /ʌ/ > [ɑ], /ɔ/ > [ɒ], /ɤ/ > [ʌ], /o~ö̯o~ö/ > [ɔ~ɞ̯ɔ~ɞ], /o/ > [ɔ], /u~ʉ̯u~ʉ/ > [o~ɵ̯o~ɵ], /i̯ɛ/ > [e̯æ], /ae̯/ > [æ], /əe̯/ > [ɛ], /ɑɔ̯/ > [ɒ], /ʌo̯/ > [ɒ], /ɔɪ̯/ > [ɒe̯], /i̯ɛɤ̯/ > [e̯æ]/[e̯æʌ̯]**, /aɤ̯/ > [a]/[aʌ̯]**, /ɜɤ̯/ > [a]/[aʌ̯]**, /ɒo̯/ > [ɒ]/[ɒɔ̯]**, /ʌɤ̯/ > [ɑ]/[ɑʌ̯]**, /eɯ̞̯/ > [ɛɤ̯], /iɯ̞̯/ > [eɯ̞̯], /ɘɯ̞̯/ > [ɜɤ̯], /ɔʊ̯/ > [ɒo̯], /uʊ̯/ > [o], /i̯ɛi̯/ > [e̯æe̯], /i̯ɛɘ̯/ > [e̯æɜ̯]. /i̯ɛɔ̯/ > [e̯æɒ̯], /ɜi̯/ > [ae̯], /ɜɘ̯/ > [aɜ̯], /ɜɔ̯/ > [aɒ̯], /ɘi̯/ > [ɜe̯], /ɘə̯/ > [ɜɐ̯], /ɘo̯/ > [ɜɔ̯], /ʌi̯/ > [ɑe̯], /ʌɘ̯/ > [ɑɜ̯], /ʌɔ̯/ > [ɑɒ̯], /ai̯/ > [ae̯]. /aɘ̯/ > [aɜ̯], /aɔ̯/ > [aɒ̯]. /ɑi̯/ > [ɑe̯], /ɑɘ̯/ > [ɑɜ̯], /oi̯/ > [ɔe̯], /oɘ̯/ > [ɔɜ̯], and /oə̯/ > [ɔɐ̯].
* not fronted and raised to [æ] unlike /a/ in other environments.
** when not monophthongized.
Phonology (circa 2250)
Coda /r/ elision
(In Upper Midwestern dialects)
Elision of coda /rˤ/ (not before another vowel), pharyngealizing the following consonant (including across word boundaries).
/ə/ before /rˤ/ resurfaces as [ɐ].
/rˤrˤ/ merges with /rˤ/.
Reduction of 'is'
In Upper Midwestern dialects, unstressed 'is' is reduced to /ɘ/ and stressed 's' is reduced to /ɘ̀ː/ except before vowels or utterance-finally.
Voicing of unstressed intervocalic fricatives and devoicing of other unstressed fricatives
Unstressed intervocalic /f θ s̺ s̻ ʃ ɕ/, except when geminate, > [v ð z̺ z̻ ʒ ʑ], except word-finally before a vowel, where [f θ s̺ s̻ ʃ ɕ] and [v ð z̺ z̻ ʒ ʑ] are in free variation.
Unstressed /v ð z̺ z̻ ʒ ʑ/, including when geminate, > [f θ s̺ s̻ ʃ ɕ] in all other positions (preserving length).
Elision of final-syllable reduced vowels
/ə ɘ/, in Upper Midwestern dialects, and /ə ɨ/, in GA-like dialects, is elided in VC*_C*#, where such would result in a legal consonant cluster (except if the final consonant is of the same POA as the preceding one). If the vowel elided is preceded by the syllable with primary accent, the primary accented syllable receives falling pitch accent. In Upper Midwestern dialects, in the resulting consonant cluster if obstruents become adjacent they undergo fortition. A preceding consonant, if a nasal, is then elided if the following consonant is not a sibilant fricative. A preceding consonant, if a stop, is assimilates to another plosive but together results in a short consonant, but if word-final, the resulting consonant does not lenite between vowels. Larger consonant clusters are allowed if constituents include /rˤ/ in Upper Midwestern dialects.
* any sequence of consonants
Note that /r/ is not permitted in final clusters but /rˤ/ permitted in final clusters except finally.
Note that geminates may not be incorporated into larger consonant clusters.
Reduction of final geminates
Final geminates are reduced to short consonants. However, final geminate plosives and fricatives remain distinct from final non-geminate plosives and fricatives in that they do not ever lenite between vowels.
Reduction of clusters containing non-intersonorant geminates
Clusters containing non-intersonorant geminates are reduced by shortening the geminate in question to a short consonant.
Stopping/assibilation of /θ ð/
Morpheme-initially, /θ ð/ > [d̥ d̥] except that /ð/ > [n] after a nasal vowel (formerly after a nasal consonant).
Medially, /θ ð/ > [s̺ z̺].
Finally, /θ ð/ > [t t] except when intervocalic, where then [d̥ d̥].
Phonology (circa 2300)
Pharyngealized velar to uvular shift
In Upper Midwestern dialects, /rˤk rˤɡ̊/ > [q ɢ̥].
Elision of pretonic reduced vowels
In Upper Midwestern dialects, /ə ɘ/, and in GA-related varieties, /ə ɨ/ are elided in positions before the primary accent, such that no two vowels are elided in adjacent syllables, vowels closer to the start of words are preferentially elided, and the resulting consonant clusters are legal (even though the range of allowed consonant distributions is widened as a result). If a vowel is elided in the syllable immediately preceding the primary accented syllable, the primary accented syllable receives rising pitch accent, unless it previously had falling pitch accent, where then it receives rising-falling pitch accent.
Elision does not occur between adjacent plosives or adjacent sibilant fricatives for initial syllable vowels.
In Upper Midwestern dialects, the non-palatalized/palatalized and palatoalveolar/alveolopalatal-ness of the newly adjacent consonants is preserved.
In Upper Midwestern dialects, the distribution of /r rˤ/ changes so that /rˤ/ is permitted in initial positions.
Pharyngealized non-palatalized alveolar to palatalized alveolar and palatoalveolar to alveolopalatal shift
In Upper Midwestern dialects, after /rˤ/, including across word boundaries, non-palatalized alveolar consonants become palatalized alveolar and palatoalveolar consonants become alveolopalatal.
Reduction of unstressed 'are' to /rˤ/
In Upper Midwestern dialects, unstressed 'are' is reduced to /rˤ/, realized as just pharyngealization of a following consonant before consonants.
Loss of glottalization
Glottalization is lost including [ʔ] from /t/.
Examples (circa 2300)
I'm not going to go over to the park to watch the game.
[ɛ̃̀ nǽk kʌ̃̂ ɾə ɡ̊ɔ̀u̯ ɒ̂ː ɾˤɐ d̥ə pʰɑ́q tɐ wɒ́tʃ tə ɡ̊ẽ̀]
Can we get some food from the store so we have something to eat?
[tɕʰĩ̯ɛ̃̀ wì ɡ̊ɜ́t sʌ̃̀ fùːt fʁʌ̃̀ d̥ə sʲɒ̀ sʲˤɒ̀o̯ wì i̯ɛ̀ːf sʌ̀̃tɘ ə í]
Why can't we join an IRC channel and troll the users?
[wɛ̀ tɕʰĩ̯ɛ̃́ wì d̥ʒ̊ɔ̃̀ɪ̯̃ ɘ ˈɛ̀ːˌɑˌsʲˤe ˈtʃʰĩ̯ɛ̃̂ː ɘ tʃʰɻ͡ʁɔ̀ːu̯ d̥ə ˈjʉ̀ːzɐsʲˤ]
How can we improve this phonology page as I am running out of ideas?
[ɒ̀ tɕʰĩ̯ɛ̯̃̀ wì pʰʁǔːf tɘ̀s ˈfnæ˨˦˨ːd̥ʒ̊i pʰèːd̥ʒ̊ i̯ɛ̀ːz ɛ̀ ĩ̯ɛ̃̀ ʁʷʌ̃̂ːɘ̯̃ ɔ́ əv ˈɛ̌ːd̥iːəs]
I am busy debugging my test code, which is partially working, but still has some issues.
[ɛ̀ ĩ̯ɛ̃̀ ˈb̥ɘ̀ːzi d̥əˈb̥ʌ̀ːɡ̊ɘ mɛ̀ tʰɜ̀s kʰɔ̀ːt | wɘ́d̥ʒ̊ ɘs ˈpʰɑ̂ʑˤɰe ˈwɐ̀ɢ̥ɜ | b̥ʌ́ sʲɘ̀ːɯ̯ i̯ɛ̀ːs sʌ̃̀ ˈɘʑʉːs]
The computer is acting funny right now, why don't you come back and try again later?
[d̥ə kʰəˈpʰjɵ̯ôʁˤ ɘs ˈi̯ɛ́tːɘ fʌ̃̂ːĩ̯ ʁʷé nɒ̀ | wɛ̀ dɔ̃́ jʉ̯ù kʰʌ̃̀ b̥i̯ɛ́ɡ̊ ɘ tʃʰɻ͡ʁɛ̀ ɡ̊ɜ̃̌ ʟ̞ɛ̂]
Reduction of auxiliaries and affixation onto pronouns
1.Sˈɛ̀ɡ̊ɘˈɛ̀d̥ʑ̥əˈɛ̀d̥ʑ̥i̯ɛˈɛ̀wəˈɛ̀wɔə
1.Pˈwìɡ̊ɘˈwìd̥ʑ̥əˈwìd̥ʑ̥i̯ɛˈwìwəˈwìwɔə
2.Sˈjʉ̯ùɡ̊ɘ~jəˈkʰɘ̃ˈjʉ̀d̥ʑ̥ə~jəˈtɕʰĩ̯ɛ̃́ˈjʉ̀d̥ʑ̥i̯ɛ~jəˈtɕʰĩ̯ɛ̃̀ˈjʉ̯ùwə~jəˈwɔ̃́ˈjʉ̯ùwɔə~jəˈwɔ̃̀ə
2.Pjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːskɘjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːstɕəjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːstɕi̯ɛjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːswəjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːswɔə
3.M.Sˈìɡ̊ɘˈìd̥ʑ̥əˈìd̥ʑ̥i̯ɛˈìwəˈìwɔə
3.F.Sˈʃìɡ̊ɘˈʃìd̥ʑ̥əˈʃìd̥ʑ̥i̯ɛˈʃìwəˈʃìwɔə
3.N.Sˈɘ́kːɘˈɘ́tːɕəˈɘ́tːɕi̯ɛˈɘ́wəˈɘ́wɔə
3.Pˈd̥èɡ̊ɘˈd̥èd̥ʑ̥əˈd̥èd̥ʑ̥i̯ɛˈd̥èwəˈd̥èwɔə
1.Sˈɛ̀ɡ̊oˈɛ̀ɡ̊onˈɛ̀ɡ̊oə̯ˈɛ̀ɡ̊onə
1.Pˈwìɡ̊oˈwìɡ̊onˈwìɡ̊oə̯ˈwìɡ̊onə
2.Sˈjʉ̯ùɡ̊o~jəˈkʰòːˈjʉ̯ùɡ̊on~jəˈkʰòːnˈjʉ̯ùɡ̊oə̯~jəˈkʰòːə̯ˈjʉ̯ùɡ̊onə~jəˈkʰòːnːə
2.Pjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːskojəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːskonjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːskoə̯jəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːskonə
3.M.Sˈìɡ̊oˈìɡ̊onˈìɡ̊oə̯ˈìɡ̊onə
3.F.Sˈʃìɡ̊oˈʃìɡ̊onˈʃìɡ̊oə̯ˈʃìɡ̊onə
3.N.Sˈɘ́kːoˈɘ́kːonˈɘ́kːoə̯ˈɘ́kːonə
3.Pˈd̥èɡ̊oˈd̥èɡ̊onˈd̥èɡ̊oə̯ˈd̥èɡ̊onə
1.Sˈɛ̀woˈɛ̀wonˈɛ̀woə̯ˈɛ̀wonə
1.Pˈwìwoˈwìwonˈwìwoə̯ˈwìwonə
2.Sˈjʉ̯ùwo~jəˈwòːˈjʉ̯ùwon~jəˈwòːnˈjʉ̯ùwoə̯~jəˈwòːə̯ˈjʉ̯ùwonə~jəˈwòːnːə
2.Pjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːswojəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːswonjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːswoə̯jəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːswonə
3.M.Sˈìwoˈìwonˈìwoə̯ˈìwonə
3.F.Sˈʃìwoˈʃìwonˈʃìwoə̯ˈʃìwonə
3.N.Sˈɘ́woˈɘ́wonˈɘ́woə̯ˈɘ́wonə
3.Pˈd̥èwoˈd̥èwonˈd̥èwoə̯ˈd̥èwonə
1.Sˈɛ̀ɕɵ~ˈɛ̀ɕtˈɛ̀ɕɵnˈɛ̀ɕɵə̯ˈɛ̀ɕɵnə
1.Pˈwìɕɵ~ˈwìɕtˈwìɕɵnˈwìɕɵə̯ˈwìɕɵnə
2.Sˈjʉ̯ùɕɵ~jəˈɕɵ̀ː~ˈjʉɕtˈjʉ̯ùɕɵn~jəˈɕɵ̀ːnˈjʉ̯ùɕɵə̯~jəˈɕɵ̀ːə̯ˈjʉ̯ùɕɵnə~jəˈɕɵ̀ːnːə
2.Pjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsɕɵ~jəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsɕtjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsɕɵnjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsɕɵə̯jəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsɕɵnə
3.M.Sˈìɕɵ~ˈìɕtˈìɕɵnˈìɕɵə̯ˈìɕɵnə
3.F.Sˈʃìɕɵ~ˈʃìɕtˈʃìɕɵnˈʃìɕɵə̯ˈʃìɕɵnə
3.N.Sˈɘ́ɕɵ~ˈɘ́ɕtˈɘ́ɕɵnˈɘ́ɕɵə̯ˈɘ́ɕɵnə
3.Pˈd̥èɕɵ~ˈd̥èɕtˈd̥èɕɵnˈd̥èɕɵə̯ˈd̥èɕɵnə
1.Sˈɛ̀meˈɛ̀menæˈɛ̀meəˈɛ̀menə
1.Pˈwìmeˈwìmenæˈwìmeəˈwìmenə
2.Sˈjʉ̯ùme~jəˈméˈjʉ̯ùmenæ~jəˈménæˈjʉ̯ùmeə~jəˈmèəˈjʉ̯ùmenə~jəˈménə
2.Pjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsmejəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsmenæjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsmeəjəˈɡ̊ɛ̀ːsmenə
3.M.Sˈìmeˈìmenæˈìmeəˈìmenə
3.F.Sˈʃìmeˈʃìmenæˈʃìmeəˈʃìmenə
3.N.Sˈɘ́meˈɘ́menæˈɘ́meəˈɘ́menə
3.Pˈd̥èmeˈd̥èmenæˈd̥èmeəˈd̥èmenə