Phonemes
Consonants
| Labials | Dentals | Alveolars | Retroflexes | Palatals | Velars | Uvulars | Pharyngeals | Glottals
|
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Voiceless stops | p | t | | | c | k | q | | ʔ ⟨ʾ⟩
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Voiced stops | b | d | | | ɟ ⟨j⟩ | ɡ ⟨g⟩ | |
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Ejectives | pʼ ⟨p'⟩ | tʼ ⟨t'⟩ | tsʼ ⟨ts'⟩ | | cʼ ⟨c'⟩ | kʼ ⟨k'⟩ | qʼ ⟨q'⟩ |
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Voiceless fricatives | | θ ⟨ṯ⟩ | s ɬ ⟨ł⟩ | ʂ ⟨š⟩ | ɕ ⟨ś⟩ | | χ ⟨x⟩ | ħ ⟨ḥ⟩ | h
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Voiced fricatives | | ð ⟨ḏ⟩ | z | | | | ʁ ⟨ġ⟩ | ʕ ⟨ʿ⟩ |
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Nasals | m | | n | | | | | |
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Liquids | | | ɾ ⟨r⟩ l | | | | | |
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Semivowels | w | | | | j ⟨y⟩ | | | | |
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All consonants may be long, which are written as the short consonant but with the first character doubled. However, the long counterpart of /ɾ/ is /r/.
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back
|
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Close | i iː | | u uː
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Near-close | | ɨ |
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Close-mid | e eː | | o oː
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Mid | | ə |
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Open | æ æː | | |
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Long vowels can only occur in accented syllables and /ə ɨ/ can only occur in unaccented syllables.
Short vowels are written:
Vowels | Unaccented | Low | High
|
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æ | ⟨a⟩ | ⟨à⟩ | ⟨á⟩
|
e | ⟨e⟩ | ⟨è⟩ | ⟨é⟩
|
ə | ⟨ä⟩ | - | -
|
o | ⟨o⟩ | ⟨ò⟩ | ⟨ó⟩
|
i | ⟨i⟩ | ⟨ì⟩ | ⟨í⟩
|
ɨ | ⟨ə⟩ | - | -
|
u | ⟨u⟩ | ⟨ù⟩ | ⟨ú⟩ |
Long vowels are written:
Vowels | Low | Rising | Falling
|
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æː | ⟨ā⟩ | ⟨ǎ⟩ | ⟨â⟩
|
eː | ⟨ē⟩ | ⟨ě⟩ | ⟨ê⟩
|
oː | ⟨ō⟩ | ⟨ǒ⟩ | ⟨ô⟩
|
iː | ⟨ī⟩ | ⟨ǐ⟩ | ⟨î⟩
|
uː | ⟨ū⟩ | ⟨ǔ⟩ | ⟨û⟩ |
However, when not separated by at least one vowel from a uvular or pharyngeal consonant:
| Front | Central | Back
|
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Close-mid | /i iː/ > [e eː] | | /u uː/ > [o oː]
|
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Mid | | /ɨ/ > [ə] |
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Open-mid | /e eː/ > [ɛ ɛː] | | /o oː/ > [ɔ ɔː]
|
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Near-open | | /ə/ > [ɐ] |
|
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Open | | | /æ æː/ > [ɑ ɑː] |
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Accentuation
One mora in a word may be accented.
Short vowels may only receive high accent, written <á>, or low accent, written <à>.
Long vowels may only receive rising accent, written <â>, falling accent, written <ǎ>, or low accent, written <ā>.
Diachronics
Historical forms
Pronouns
Person | Stem
|
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1st | tá-
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2nd | ní-
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3rd | há-
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Reflexive | dò-
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Interrogative (thing) | jà-
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Interrogative (person) | ʁà-
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Interrogative (place) | tʼé-
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Proximal | ùn-
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Medial | ìn-
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Distal | àn- |
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Interrogative adverbs
Type | Stem
|
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Time | ɟú
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Manner | ɾò
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Reason | χá |
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Interrogative adjectives
Type | Stem
|
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General | zè-
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Partitive | tsʼí- |
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Relative marker
This comes after the modified noun and any adjectives, before a relative clause, and inflects like an adjective modifying the modified noun.
Non-modifying relative marker
This is used to nominalize one argument in a relative clause, where it inflects like a noun taking the role of the nominalized argument in the outside clause.
Clause nominalization marker
This is used to nominalize one clause in another, where it inflects like a noun taking the role of the nominalized clause in the outside clause.
Manner-nominization marker
The is used to nominalize the manner of a clause in another, where it inflects like a noun taking the role of the nominalized clause in the outside clause.
Reason-nominalization marker
This is used to nominalize the reason for a clause in another, where it inflects like a noun taking the role of the nominalized clause.
Time-nominalization marker
This is used to nominalize the time of a clause in another, where it inflects like a noun taking the role of the nominalized clause.
Place-nominalization marker
This is used to nominalize the place of a clause in another, where it inflects like a noun taking the role of the nominalized clause.
Noun gender, case, and number affixes
Gender | Affix
|
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Masculine | -∅
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Feminine | -k
|
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Neuter | -n |
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Case | Affix
|
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Ergative | -já
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Absolutive/Genitive | -∅
|
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Dative | -im
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Instrumental/Comitative | -ât
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Ablative | -an
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Elative | -je
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Locative | -χú
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Inessive | -eːh
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Allative | -wó
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Illative | -aja
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Vocative | -aːh
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Number | Affix
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Singular | -∅
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Dual | -it
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Plural | -u |
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Article/demonstrative affixes
Type | Affix
|
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Definite | i-
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Proximal | uː-
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Medial | iː-
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Distal | aː- |
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Possessive affixes
Person | Affix
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1st | ɾ-
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2nd | b-
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3rd | j- |
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Gender | Affix
|
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Masculine | -a-
|
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Feminine | -i-
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Neuter | -aː- |
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Gender | Affix
|
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Singular | -∅-
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Dual | -it-
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Plural | -w- |
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When taking accent, possessive affixes take priority over number/gender affixes and case affixes.
Verb inflection
TAM | Affix
|
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Stative | ∅-
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Non-past | h-
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Past | ∅-
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Imperfective | -aː-
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Perfective | -i- |
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Voice | Affix
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Active | ∅-
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Antipassive | aʁ-
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Reflexive | ji-
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Reciprocal | wa-
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Causative | muh- |
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The reflexive, reciprocal, and causative can be combined with the antipassive, formed by specifying the antipassive followed by the reflexive, reciprocal, or causative.
Role | Affix
|
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Imperative | -∅-
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Agent | -χ-
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Patient | -∅- |
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Mood | Affix
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Imperative | -∅-
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Indicative | -∅-
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Subjunctive | -at- |
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Role | Affix
|
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Imperative | -∅-
|
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Agent | -ú-
|
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Patient | -a- |
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Person | Affix
|
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1st | -aː-
|
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2nd | -iː-
|
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3rd | -∅- |
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Gender | Affix
|
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Masculine | -h-
|
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Feminine | -k-
|
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Neuter | -n- |
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Number | Affix
|
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Singular | -∅
|
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Dual | -ú
|
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Plural | -a |
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Noun from verb
Type | Affixes
|
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Infinitive | a- -at
|
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Participle | -i
|
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Agent | á- -aɾ
|
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Patient | jó- -at
|
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Indirect object | ni- -ú
|
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Instrument | ka- -tá
|
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Place | hǎː- -ab
|
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Time | ʕú- -wa |
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Verb from adjective
Type | Affix
|
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Predicative | ħó-
|
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Inchoative | tu- |
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Verb from noun
Type | Affix
|
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Predicative | ná- |
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Adjective from noun
Noun from adjective
Adjective agreement
Definiteness | Affix
|
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Definite | -já
|
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Indefinite | -∅ |
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After definiteness marking, adjectives take the same gender, case, and number marking as nouns.
Adjective degree
| Affix
|
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Positive | ∅-
|
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Comparative | ʕá-
|
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Comparative superlative | kôːχ-
|
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Absolute superlative | mǔː |
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Adverbs from adjectives
Nouns from adverbs
Interrogative
Mobile accent
Certain affixes tend to attract accent.
Diphthong monophthongization
The following glide must fall on a syllable coda.
aj aːj ej eːj ij iːj oj oːj uj uːj > eː eː eː eː iː iː øː øː yː yː
aw aːw ew eːw iw iːw ow oːw uw uːw > oː oː øː øː yː yː oː oː uː uː
Ejectivization of consonants before glottal stops
tʔ sʔ cʔ kʔ qʔ dʔ zʔ ɟʔ ɡʔ > tʼ tsʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ tʼ tsʼ cʼ kʼ
tːʔ sːʔ cːʔ kːʔ qːʔ dːʔ zːʔ ɟːʔ ɡːʔ > tʼː tsʼː cʼː kʼː qʼː tʼː tsʼː cʼː kʼ
ʔt ʔs ʔc ʔk ʔq ʔd ʔz ʔɟ ʔɡ > tʼ tsʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ tʼ tsʼ cʼ kʼ
ʔtː ʔsː ʔcː ʔkː ʔqː ʔdː ʔzː ʔɟː ʔɡː > tʼː tsʼː cʼː kʼː qʼː tʼː tsʼː cʼː kʼ
Hiatus contraction
The horizontal dimension is the accented vowel, or if neither vowel is accented, the preceding vowel.
| a | aː | e | eː | o | oː | i | iː | u | uː
|
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a | aː | aː | aː | eː | aː | oː | eː | iː | oː | uː
|
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aː | aː | aː | aː | eː | aː | oː | eː | eː | oː | oː
|
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e | aː | aː | eː | eː | oː | oː | iː | iː | uː | uː
|
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eː | eː | aː | eː | eː | oː | oː | eː | iː | oː | uː
|
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o | aː | aː | eː | eː | oː | oː | iː | iː | uː | uː
|
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oː | oː | aː | eː | eː | oː | oː | eː | iː | oː | uː
|
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i | eː | aː | eː | eː | eː | eː | iː | iː | uː | uː
|
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iː | eː | eː | eː | eː | eː | eː | iː | iː | iː | uː
|
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u | oː | aː | oː | oː | oː | oː | iː | iː | uː | uː
|
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uː | oː | oː | oː | oː | oː | oː | uː | iː | uː | uː |
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Note that when one of the vowels contracted is accented, if that vowel has low accent the resulting vowel has low accent, otherwise if it is contracted with a preceding vowel the resulting vowel has a rising accent and if it is contracted with a following vowel the resulting vowel has a falling accent.
Unstressed short vowel reduction
a e ø i y o u > ə ə ə ɨ ɨ ə ɨ \ _[-accent]
Unstressed long vowel shortening
aː eː øː iː yː oː uː > a e ø i y o u \ _[-accent]
Reduced vowel elision
ə ɨ > ∅ ∅ \ VC_CV
When multiple mutually exclusive reduced vowels can be elided, those which are further from the primary stress are preferentially elided.
e eː ə o oː > i iː ɨ u uː > \ _CɨCV
a aː > e eː \ _CɨCV when not separated from a uvular or pharyngeal consonant by not a vowel or morel
a aː > o oː \ _CɨCV when separated from a uvular or pharyngeal consonant by not a vowel or morel
i iː ɨ u uː > e eː ə o oː > \ _CəCV
Diphthong monophthongization
aj aːj ej eːj ij iːj oj oːj uj uːj > eː eː eː eː iː iː øː øː yː yː \ _[+accent]
aw aːw ew eːw iw iːw ow oːw uw uːw > oː oː øː øː yː yː oː oː uː uː \ _[+accent]
aj ej ij əj ɨj oj uj > e e i e i ø y \ _[-accent]
aw ew iw əw ɨw ow uw > o ø y o u o u \ _[-accent]
Gemination and devoicing of consonants before and after /χ ʁ n/
C[-voice]χ > C[-voice +long]
C[+ejective]χ > C[+ejective +long]
C[+voice]χ > C[-voice +long]
χC[-voice] > C[-voice +long]
χC[+ejective] > C[+ejective +long]
χC[+voice] > C[-voice +long]
C[-voice]ʁ > C[-voice +long]
C[+ejective]ʁ > C[+ejective +long]
C[+voice]ʁ > C[+voice +long]
ʁC[-voice] > C[-voice +long]
ʁC[+ejective] > C[+ejective +long]
ʁC[+voice] > C[+voice +long]
C[-voice]n > C[+voice +long]
C[+ejective]n > C[+ejective +long]
C[+voice]n > C[+voice +long]
nC[-voice] > C[+voice +long]
nC[+ejective] > C[+ejective +long]
nC[+voice] > C[+voice +long]
Ejectivization of consonants before glottal stops
tʔ sʔ cʔ kʔ qʔ dʔ zʔ ɟʔ ɡʔ > tʼ tsʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ tʼ tsʼ cʼ kʼ
tːʔ sːʔ cːʔ kːʔ qːʔ dːʔ zːʔ ɟːʔ ɡːʔ > tʼː tsʼː cʼː kʼː qʼː tʼː tsʼː cʼː kʼː
Kʔ > K
K: all consonants other than {t(ː) s(ː) c(ː) k(ː) q(ː) d(ː) z(ː) ɟ(ː) ɡ(ː)}
Modification of voiced coronals
ɮ ʐ ʑ > z z ɟ
Pre-glide cluster mid vowel raising/backing
e eː ə o oː > i iː ɨ u uː > \ _C(C){w j}
a aː > e eː \ _C(C){w j} when not separated from a uvular or pharyngeal consonant by not a vowel or morel
a aː > o oː \ _C(C){w j} when separated from a uvular or pharyngeal consonant by not a vowel or morel
(Not when also after a cluster or geminate.)
Post-glottal cluster high vowel lowering
i iː ɨ u uː > e eː ə o oː > \ hC(C)_
(Note when also before a cluster or geminate.)
Glide cluster reduction
w j > ∅ ∅ \ C_
/h/ elision before consonants
h > ∅ \ _C
Breaking up CCC clusters
C
1C
2C
3 > C
1C
2ɨC
3
C
1ːC
2 > C
1ːɨC
2
C
1C
2ː > C
1ɨC
2ː
Breaking up final CC clusters
C
1C
2 > C
1ɨC
2 \ _#
C
1ː > C
1ɨC
1 \ _#
Short vowel accent retraction
V[-accent +full]V[+accent -long] > V[+accent -long +full -high]V[-accent]
Fronting of /a aː/
a aː > æ æː
Uvular/pharyngeal opening
When separated from a uvular or pharyngeal consonant by less than one vowel:
| Front | Central | Back
|
---|
Close-mid | i iː > e eː | | u uː > o oː
|
---|
Mid | | ɨ > ə |
|
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Open-mid | e eː > ɛ ɛː | | o oː > ɔ ɔː
|
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Near-open | | ə > ɐ |
|
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Open | | | æ æː > ɑ ɑː |
---|
Root types
Biliteral
There are two types of biliteral:
1. Single vowel accented short
2. Single vowel accented long
Triliteral
There are eight types of triliteral:
1. First vowel accented short, second vowel short
2. First vowel accented long, second vowel short
3. First vowel accented short, second vowel long
4. First vowel accented long, second vowel long
5. First vowel short, second vowel accented short
6. First vowel short, second vowel accented long
7. First vowel long, second vowel accented short
8. First vowel long, second vowel accented long