Phonology:
Clitic personal pronouns (see §4.3.1) count as part of the domain for stress computation, “allowing” underlying final stress on a preceding verb to surface on that syllable.
tā́ka ‘was’ ā́śäṃ ‘leads’ wáña ‘said’
/taká/ /aśəә́n/ /weñá/
takā́-ñ ‘was to me, I had’ aśán-me ‘leads them’ weñā́-meś(c) ‘said to them’
/taká-ñəә/ /aśəә́n-me/ /weñá-me-ś(c)əә/
Note that the secondary case endings in TB still do not form part of the accentual domain: hence gen. ñäkténtse /ñәkténtse/ ‘of the god’ vs. perl. ñáktesa /ñəkté/ + /-sa/ ‘on, by the god’, all. ñákteś(c) /ñəkté/ + /-ś(c)ə/ ‘to the god’. Exception: the ablative usually does belong to the accentual domain, hence ñäktémeṃ /ñәkté-men/ ‘from the god’ (Pinault 2006). (Contrast the personal pronouns in §4.3.1, which do “attract” stress, i.e. allow stress to surface on the final syllable of the base.)
^ Note the cluster simplification in the allative.
Syllables can only be closed with -l -r and in some cases -n. i u = /äy äw/.
Gemination might reflect absence of voicing, but geminate nasals can occur. Could just get rid of them tho.
Stressed *əә is often syncopated in metrical texts, almost always in open syllables (Thomas 1978, Winter 1990): cf. āntpi, olypo, pärkre, wärpnātär beside antápi ‘both’, olyápo ‘now’, pärkare ‘long’, wärpánatär ‘enjoys’. Phonetically this probably involved a shift of (at least some) prosodic elements of stress to an adjacent syllable, with automatic deletion of /əә/. A vowel /a/ to the left was usually written ā, but /əә/ was usually written ä, not a; see Winter 1990, Pronk 2009.
Morphology:
The noun distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, plus a class of nouns of “alternating” gender which take masculine agreement in the singular and feminine in the plural. Historically, the latter class goes back to PIE neuters.
Main inflectional classes:
Neuter (nom = acc):
Neuter: sg. -R, pl. -R-a: PT *pyәkwəl *pyәkwəla > TB pikul pikwala. (/pәykwәl/?)
The most archaic type, with *-a < PIE *-eh2 (properly *-e-h2 to thematic nouns).
Neuter: sg. -ә, pl. -ә-wa: PT *wostә wostәwa > TB ost ostuwa (/ostә́ ostә́wa/). (why is the schwa in ost accented?)
These go back to old u-stems (PIE wā́st-u) whose pl. *-əәwa was reinterpreted as *-əә-wa; the new ending *-wa was extened to other nouns ending in a consonant.
Neuter: sg. -ә, pl. -ә-na: PT *ṣwyәrmə *ṣwyərməna > TB ṣarm ṣärmana.
These go back to PIE n-stems, though most have been remade in TA. The ending *-na became the default fem. pl. ending in adjectives: TB orotsts-ana ‘great’, astár-ona ‘pure’.
Neuter: sg. -ә??, pl. -әmna: TB yoktsi yoktsánma.
Neuter: sg. -V != *ә, pl. -V-nta: *yәrkæ *yәrkænta > TB yárke yarkénta.
The last two are the only fully productive neuter pl. formations in TB. Virtually all Indo-Aryan borrowings other than proper names are assimilated to these types, depending on whether they consist of two or three syllables: TB ślok /ślokəә́/ ‘verse’, ślokánma; kleśa /kleśəә́/ ‘doubt’, kleśánma; akṣār /akṣárəә/, akṣāränta (also akṣaránma); akālk /akálkəә/ ‘wish’, akālkänta; samudtär /samә́wtәr/ ‘ocean’, samudtärnta (see Lane 1969).
Masculine:
Masculine: nom. sg. *-æ, acc. sg. *-æ(nә), gen. *-æntsæ, nom. pl. *-E(?? — e-underdot), acc. pl. -æns:
*yәkwæ *yәkwæ •yәkwæntse *yәkwE *yәkwæns > yakwe yakwe yäkwentse yakwi yakweM (/-...en(ә?)/)
O-stems in *-os, with nom.pl. from PIE pronominal *-oy, commonly in IE extended to nouns. This vowel regularly palatalized a preceding consonant; the palatalization has been undone in most cases by analogy to the sg., but survives in e.g. TB kercci ‘swords’, kokalyi ‘chariots’ to kertte, kokale.
Masculine/feminine: *-e *-ә *-әntsæ, nom.pl. *-әy: *meñe *meñә *meñәntsæ *meñәy > meñe meñ meñantse meñi.
Often said to go back to hysterokinetic n- and s-stems with nom. sg. *-ēn, *-ēs (cf. Gr. ὑμήν ‘membrane’, Lat. lien ‘spleen’; Lith. mė́nuo, gen. mė́nes-io ‘moon’), but many details remain to be clarified. Note the type in TB -iye, A -e of TB kälymíye, acc. kalymi (pl. kälymiń, kälymiṃ), TA kälyme (pl. kälymeyäntu) ‘direction’.
Feminine:
Feminine: nom. *-a, acc. *-o, confined to three nouns: śana śano 'woman', lāntsa lāntso 'queen' (cf. 'king'), ṣarya ṣaryo 'dear one/lady'.
Feminine: nom. *-o, acc. *-a: kantwo kantwa.
Peters (1990) argues that at least some of these nouns go back to PIE hysterokinetic nouns in *- éh2s, e.g. *dn̥ĝhwéh2s —> *gn̥dhwās > PT *kəәntwo, or pl. *-eh2es in *dhoHneh2-es (cf. Lith. sg. dúona ‘bread’) > PT *tano, but what of the others? See now Malzahn 2011.
Feminine: nom. sg. *-o, acc. sg. *-ai: *prosko *proskai > prosko/proskiye praskai (??).
Nom. pl. aiñ, acc. pl. aiM /-ái-ñә, -ái-nә/ in disyllabic words, -añ -aM / ́-a-nә, ́-nә/ (?) for longer stems:
pyāpyo 'flower' > acc. pyāpyai, nom.pl. pyapyáiñ, acc.pl. pyapyáiM
Interference from the 'kalymiye' type (masc/fem) in the nom.sg.
Irregular nouns:
nom. pācer, acc. pātär, gen. pātri 'father'
nom. wálo, acc. lānt, gen. lānte, nom.pl. lāñc 'king'
nom. ku, acc. kweM 'dog'
TODO adjectives
——
from Peyrot:
-eu merged into -au except in three cases:
ou = marginal diphthong created only by analogy
auN > omN ( > oN)
au > o
a (ə) > ai before a palatal (s', ñ) — what about ly py?
so ai was probably [əi]
applied in accented syllables only
fricativization of final c
ä > i before or after a palatal consonant
käSSiñis', all.sg. of käSSi — for käSSiMs'c or käSSinäs'
ai > e (maybe)
e > i after palatals (and in one case before) (this is less frequent)
variation between tär and trä = syllabic r?
#tk > #k
Clitic personal pronouns (see §4.3.1) count as part of the domain for stress computation, “allowing” underlying final stress on a preceding verb to surface on that syllable.
tā́ka ‘was’ ā́śäṃ ‘leads’ wáña ‘said’
/taká/ /aśəә́n/ /weñá/
takā́-ñ ‘was to me, I had’ aśán-me ‘leads them’ weñā́-meś(c) ‘said to them’
/taká-ñəә/ /aśəә́n-me/ /weñá-me-ś(c)əә/
Note that the secondary case endings in TB still do not form part of the accentual domain: hence gen. ñäkténtse /ñәkténtse/ ‘of the god’ vs. perl. ñáktesa /ñəkté/ + /-sa/ ‘on, by the god’, all. ñákteś(c) /ñəkté/ + /-ś(c)ə/ ‘to the god’. Exception: the ablative usually does belong to the accentual domain, hence ñäktémeṃ /ñәkté-men/ ‘from the god’ (Pinault 2006). (Contrast the personal pronouns in §4.3.1, which do “attract” stress, i.e. allow stress to surface on the final syllable of the base.)
^ Note the cluster simplification in the allative.
Syllables can only be closed with -l -r and in some cases -n. i u = /äy äw/.
Gemination might reflect absence of voicing, but geminate nasals can occur. Could just get rid of them tho.
Stressed *əә is often syncopated in metrical texts, almost always in open syllables (Thomas 1978, Winter 1990): cf. āntpi, olypo, pärkre, wärpnātär beside antápi ‘both’, olyápo ‘now’, pärkare ‘long’, wärpánatär ‘enjoys’. Phonetically this probably involved a shift of (at least some) prosodic elements of stress to an adjacent syllable, with automatic deletion of /əә/. A vowel /a/ to the left was usually written ā, but /əә/ was usually written ä, not a; see Winter 1990, Pronk 2009.
Morphology:
The noun distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, plus a class of nouns of “alternating” gender which take masculine agreement in the singular and feminine in the plural. Historically, the latter class goes back to PIE neuters.
Main inflectional classes:
Neuter (nom = acc):
Neuter: sg. -R, pl. -R-a: PT *pyәkwəl *pyәkwəla > TB pikul pikwala. (/pәykwәl/?)
The most archaic type, with *-a < PIE *-eh2 (properly *-e-h2 to thematic nouns).
Neuter: sg. -ә, pl. -ә-wa: PT *wostә wostәwa > TB ost ostuwa (/ostә́ ostә́wa/). (why is the schwa in ost accented?)
These go back to old u-stems (PIE wā́st-u) whose pl. *-əәwa was reinterpreted as *-əә-wa; the new ending *-wa was extened to other nouns ending in a consonant.
Neuter: sg. -ә, pl. -ә-na: PT *ṣwyәrmə *ṣwyərməna > TB ṣarm ṣärmana.
These go back to PIE n-stems, though most have been remade in TA. The ending *-na became the default fem. pl. ending in adjectives: TB orotsts-ana ‘great’, astár-ona ‘pure’.
Neuter: sg. -ә??, pl. -әmna: TB yoktsi yoktsánma.
Neuter: sg. -V != *ә, pl. -V-nta: *yәrkæ *yәrkænta > TB yárke yarkénta.
The last two are the only fully productive neuter pl. formations in TB. Virtually all Indo-Aryan borrowings other than proper names are assimilated to these types, depending on whether they consist of two or three syllables: TB ślok /ślokəә́/ ‘verse’, ślokánma; kleśa /kleśəә́/ ‘doubt’, kleśánma; akṣār /akṣárəә/, akṣāränta (also akṣaránma); akālk /akálkəә/ ‘wish’, akālkänta; samudtär /samә́wtәr/ ‘ocean’, samudtärnta (see Lane 1969).
Masculine:
Masculine: nom. sg. *-æ, acc. sg. *-æ(nә), gen. *-æntsæ, nom. pl. *-E(?? — e-underdot), acc. pl. -æns:
*yәkwæ *yәkwæ •yәkwæntse *yәkwE *yәkwæns > yakwe yakwe yäkwentse yakwi yakweM (/-...en(ә?)/)
O-stems in *-os, with nom.pl. from PIE pronominal *-oy, commonly in IE extended to nouns. This vowel regularly palatalized a preceding consonant; the palatalization has been undone in most cases by analogy to the sg., but survives in e.g. TB kercci ‘swords’, kokalyi ‘chariots’ to kertte, kokale.
Masculine/feminine: *-e *-ә *-әntsæ, nom.pl. *-әy: *meñe *meñә *meñәntsæ *meñәy > meñe meñ meñantse meñi.
Often said to go back to hysterokinetic n- and s-stems with nom. sg. *-ēn, *-ēs (cf. Gr. ὑμήν ‘membrane’, Lat. lien ‘spleen’; Lith. mė́nuo, gen. mė́nes-io ‘moon’), but many details remain to be clarified. Note the type in TB -iye, A -e of TB kälymíye, acc. kalymi (pl. kälymiń, kälymiṃ), TA kälyme (pl. kälymeyäntu) ‘direction’.
Feminine:
Feminine: nom. *-a, acc. *-o, confined to three nouns: śana śano 'woman', lāntsa lāntso 'queen' (cf. 'king'), ṣarya ṣaryo 'dear one/lady'.
Feminine: nom. *-o, acc. *-a: kantwo kantwa.
Peters (1990) argues that at least some of these nouns go back to PIE hysterokinetic nouns in *- éh2s, e.g. *dn̥ĝhwéh2s —> *gn̥dhwās > PT *kəәntwo, or pl. *-eh2es in *dhoHneh2-es (cf. Lith. sg. dúona ‘bread’) > PT *tano, but what of the others? See now Malzahn 2011.
Feminine: nom. sg. *-o, acc. sg. *-ai: *prosko *proskai > prosko/proskiye praskai (??).
Nom. pl. aiñ, acc. pl. aiM /-ái-ñә, -ái-nә/ in disyllabic words, -añ -aM / ́-a-nә, ́-nә/ (?) for longer stems:
pyāpyo 'flower' > acc. pyāpyai, nom.pl. pyapyáiñ, acc.pl. pyapyáiM
Interference from the 'kalymiye' type (masc/fem) in the nom.sg.
Irregular nouns:
nom. pācer, acc. pātär, gen. pātri 'father'
nom. wálo, acc. lānt, gen. lānte, nom.pl. lāñc 'king'
nom. ku, acc. kweM 'dog'
TODO adjectives
——
from Peyrot:
-eu merged into -au except in three cases:
nom sg m of adjectives like perneu, supported by parallel adjectives in âu
obl sg m 'ceu' of the su-pronoun, supported by ce, the obl sg m of the se-pronoun (-u is the sg of the su-pronoun)
keu (cf kewiye, kewaM)
ou = marginal diphthong created only by analogy
auN > omN ( > oN)
au > o
a (ə) > ai before a palatal (s', ñ) — what about ly py?
so ai was probably [əi]
applied in accented syllables only
fricativization of final c
ä > i before or after a palatal consonant
käSSiñis', all.sg. of käSSi — for käSSiMs'c or käSSinäs'
ai > e (maybe)
e > i after palatals (and in one case before) (this is less frequent)
variation between tär and trä = syllabic r?
#tk > #k