Illative, adessive, and allative cases have been developed, the latter three by addition of *h1en or *h2eu to the dative or accusative. The locative is from the old locative, extended by *h1en; the old locative has been preserved only in set expressions like śəmi "at home" and laukái "in the field".
Some nouns, e.g. byərći 'birth', have ablaut: the nominative, accusative, illative, and allative cases have one vowel, in this case yə, and all other cases have a different vowel, in this case u.
Declensions are categorized and known by their nominative plural.
TODO: dual, -mos
The first declension, characterized by the nominative plural -āu, comes from the *eh2-stems.
The second declension, predictably, is the *-os-stems, or -ō declension.
Second-declension neuters fall into two categories: the -ā declension, which declines like the masculine -ō declension except nom./acc. sg. -ų, nom./acc. pl. -ā, and the neuter -ō declension, which declines as follows: (note, however, that both neuter declensions are identical in the dual) (the dual is the same as in the second-declension masculine, except nom./voc./acc. -ai; both classes of neuter have -ai- for -a- in the dat., ins., and loc.)
The third declension, characterized by -i, reflects a wide variety of declension patterns, and may show ablaut between the core and oblique cases: e.g. a~'ə, ə~u, a~i. Nouns ending in -t or -ts replace this with -s in the nominative singular; in addition, familial terms etc. show irregularities here due to Szemerenyi's law, and there is uncertainty as to the genitive and instrumental singular.
Included in this declension are nouns in *tḗr.
And nouns in *-teh2ts. (The -tā ending is omitted here; it shortens when followed by a suffix of more than one mora, i.e. a long vowel or two syllables.)
The fourth declension, or -āi declension, is descended from deverbal nouns in *-tis, e.g. byərći 'birth'. Fourth-declension nouns generally have ablaut.
This declension consists of the words dāmun 'hometown', čunun 'fruit' (backformed from the obsolete root *čə̨rə̨mun, with irregular loss of the intervocalic laryngeal), hāmun 'seed', tāmun 'cooked vegetable', žānnun 'green vegetable', ćānnun 'boundary, cliff, fence, row', and gʷētsun 'edible leaf, raw vegetable' (< *gʷesdos, folded into the declension for semantic reasons). All nouns with long vowels in the direct stem exhibit ablaut with schwa in the oblique. The plural has been regularized on the model of the neuter -ō declension.
Some nouns, e.g. byərći 'birth', have ablaut: the nominative, accusative, illative, and allative cases have one vowel, in this case yə, and all other cases have a different vowel, in this case u.
Declensions are categorized and known by their nominative plural.
TODO: dual, -mos
First Declension
The first declension, characterized by the nominative plural -āu, comes from the *eh2-stems.
| SG | DU | PL | |
|---|---|---|---|
| NOM | -ā | -āśi | -āu |
| VOC | -ā | -āśi | -āu |
| ACC | -ą̄ | -āśi | -āŋ |
| GEN | -āśu | -āyō | -ǭu |
| DAT | -ų̄ | -āmō | -āmu |
| INS | -ōi | -āmī | -āmi |
| LOC | -āyin | -āfin | -āfin |
| ILL | -āmin | -āśin | -āŋin |
| ADE | -ūmau | -āmōu | -ūmbau |
| ALL | -āmau | -āśau | -āŋau |
Second Declension
The second declension, predictably, is the *-os-stems, or -ō declension.
| SG | DU | PL | |
|---|---|---|---|
| NOM | -u | -ō | -ō |
| VOC | -i | -ō | -ō |
| ACC | -ų | -ō | -əŋ |
| GEN | -uśu | -ōyō | -ǭ |
| DAT | -ōi | -amō | -ų̄ |
| INS | -ō | -amī | -ōis |
| LOC | -aiśin | -afin | -aifin |
| ILL | -umin | -ōśin | -uŋin |
| ADE | -ōyau | -amōu | -umbau |
| ALL | -umau | -ōyau | -uŋau |
Second-declension neuters fall into two categories: the -ā declension, which declines like the masculine -ō declension except nom./acc. sg. -ų, nom./acc. pl. -ā, and the neuter -ō declension, which declines as follows: (note, however, that both neuter declensions are identical in the dual) (the dual is the same as in the second-declension masculine, except nom./voc./acc. -ai; both classes of neuter have -ai- for -a- in the dat., ins., and loc.)
| SG | DU | PL | |
|---|---|---|---|
| NOM | -u | -ōi | -ō |
| VOC | -u | -ōi | -ō |
| ACC | -u | -ōi | -ō |
| GEN | -ihu | -ōyō | -ihǭ |
| DAT | -ihai | -aimō | -ihmu |
| INS | -ihə | -aimī | -ihmi |
| LOC | -iśin | -aifin | -ifin |
| ILL | -uśin | -ōiśin | -ōśin |
| ADE | -ihayau | -aimbau | -ihumbau |
| ALL | -uhau | -ōyau | -ōhau |
Third Declension
The third declension, characterized by -i, reflects a wide variety of declension patterns, and may show ablaut between the core and oblique cases: e.g. a~'ə, ə~u, a~i. Nouns ending in -t or -ts replace this with -s in the nominative singular; in addition, familial terms etc. show irregularities here due to Szemerenyi's law, and there is uncertainty as to the genitive and instrumental singular.
| SG | PL | |
|---|---|---|
| NOM | -0/s | -i |
| VOC | -0 | -i |
| ACC | -ų | -əŋ |
| GEN | -s/-u/-i | -ǭ |
| DAT | -ai | -mu |
| INS | -ə/ē | -mi |
| LOC | -in | -fin |
| ILL | -umin | -uŋin |
| ADE | -ayau | -ambau |
| ALL | -umau | -uŋau |
Included in this declension are nouns in *tḗr.
| SG | PL | |
|---|---|---|
| NOM | -tēr | -ćəri |
| VOC | -ćər | -ćəri |
| ACC | -trų | -ćərəŋ |
| GEN | -trə | -tunǭ |
| DAT | -trai | -tunu |
| INS | -trə/ē | -tuni |
| LOC | -trin | -tufin |
| ILL | -trumin | -ćəruŋin |
| ADE | -trayau | -ćəmbau |
| ALL | -trumau | -ćəruŋau |
And nouns in *-teh2ts. (The -tā ending is omitted here; it shortens when followed by a suffix of more than one mora, i.e. a long vowel or two syllables.)
| SG | PL | |
|---|---|---|
| NOM | -s | -ći |
| VOC | -t | -ći |
| ACC | -tų | -ćəŋ |
| GEN | -ćə | -tǭ |
| DAT | -tai | -mu |
| INS | -tə/ē | -mi |
| LOC | -ćīn | -tufin |
| ILL | -tumin | -ćuŋin |
| ADE | -tayau | -mbau |
| ALL | -tumau | -ćuŋau |
Fourth Declension
The fourth declension, or -āi declension, is descended from deverbal nouns in *-tis, e.g. byərći 'birth'. Fourth-declension nouns generally have ablaut.
| SG | PL | |
|---|---|---|
| NOM | -ći | -tāi |
| VOC | -ći | -tāi |
| ACC | -ćį | -ćiŋ |
| GEN | -tais | -tayǭ |
| DAT | -tāi | -ćimu |
| INS | -ćī | -ćimi |
| LOC | -taiśin | -ćifin |
| ILL | -ćimin | -ćiŋin |
| ADE | -tayau | -ćimbau |
| ALL | -ćimau | -ćiŋau |
Irregular Declensions:
Secondary ō-declension
This declension consists of the words dāmun 'hometown', čunun 'fruit' (backformed from the obsolete root *čə̨rə̨mun, with irregular loss of the intervocalic laryngeal), hāmun 'seed', tāmun 'cooked vegetable', žānnun 'green vegetable', ćānnun 'boundary, cliff, fence, row', and gʷētsun 'edible leaf, raw vegetable' (< *gʷesdos, folded into the declension for semantic reasons). All nouns with long vowels in the direct stem exhibit ablaut with schwa in the oblique. The plural has been regularized on the model of the neuter -ō declension.
| SG | PL | |
|---|---|---|
| NOM | -mun | -mō |
| VOC | -mun | -mō |
| ACC | -mun | -mō |
| GEN | -ḿəŋ | -miho |
| DAT | -ḿə̨rai | -mihmu |
| INS | -ḿə̨rə̨ | -mihmi |
| LOC | -ḿə̨rin | -mifin |
| ILL | -munin | -mōśin |
| ADE | -ḿə̨rayau | -mihumbau |
| ALL | -munau | -mōhau |