Anthologica Universe Atlas / Universes / Lirar / Gonyii / Moose / Hikóómayíi / Hikóómayíi Derivational Processes
Introduction
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Deriving Verbs
There is a rich set of derivational suffixes to create new verb stems, from other verb roots/stems and from nominals, as well as one derivational prefix, the transitivizer sóó- detailed here. The verbal (V>V and N>V) suffixes are described below, in alphabetical order. It's very common for multiple derivational suffixes to appear on a single verb stem; in such cases, the order of suffixes is not always set (i.e., is not templatic). Rather, each suffix has scope over every suffix to its left. However, there are still some set rules on suffix ordering. For example, the "rapid violent action" suffixes are usually closest to the root, while instrumental suffixes are generally among the furthest to the right, except when part of a highly lexicalized stem.
Category Change Suffixes
The following suffixes can all be applied to nouns to create new verb stems, in at least some of their uses (some can also be applied to verb stems).
-`č : locative applicative/"exist"
When applied to verb roots/stems, this suffix forms locative applicatives with inanimate subjects (1a), and when applied to noun stems, forms verbs with a general sense of "N(INAN) exists" (1b).
(1a) θIᴴ-|xwíí|-`č-yóó > θwíičóó
inv-hang-loc.applic:inan-3inan.real.impfv
"(fruits were not) hanging from them (the trees) [with 'the trees' promoted to P]" (modified from line 9)
(1b) sohIᴴk-`č-yóó-nyó > sohočóonyó
spring-exist:inan-3inan.real.impfv-stat
"there was a spring (there)" (modified from line 8)
-haᴴy : similative
The similative can be suffixed to both noun and verb stems. With nouns it has the meaning "be like N, seem like N, appear like N" (2a). With verbs it has the meaning "seem as though V" (2b).
(2a) xšó-haᴴy-yóó = xšóhašóó!
welt-simil-3inan.real.impfv
"That looks like a bite!"
(2b) Čakáaw háamsixíhayóópo ...
čaká-`:w háám-si+|xí|-haᴴy-yóó-poᴴ
rabbit-obv every.time-rdp+see-simil-3obv.real.impfv-iter
"Every time he seemed to see a rabbit (it was just a shadow)" (line 47)
-híí : "be N, have N, N exists"
Suffixed to nouns only. With animate nouns, the sense is "be N, N exists" (3a), while with inanimate nouns the sense is "have N" (3b).
(3a) ki naší-híí-yóó-nyó > ki našíhííyóonyó
neg animal-exist:an-3obv.real.impfv-stat
"there were no animals" (line 5)
(3b) ki mimočíí-híí-yóó-nyó > ki mimočííhííyóonyó
neg lodge-have-3obv.real.impfv-stat
"(he) didn't have a lodge" (line 20)
-ʔiᴴkaᴴ : "smell like"
Can be suffixed to both noun (4a) and verb stems (4b).
(4a) nóóbok "flower" → -nóóboʔíka- "be fragrant, smell fragrant"
(4b) |aᴴnaᴴčiᴴ| "be good" → -(h)anáčiʔíka- "smell good"
-ʔoᴴwóoy : "taste like"
Like -ʔiᴴkaᴴ, -ʔoᴴwóoy can be suffixed to both noun (5a) and verb stems (5b).
(5a) sθóó "pork" → -sθóóʔowóoy- "tastes like pork"
(5b) |aᴴnaᴴčiᴴ| "be good" → -(h)anáčiʔówóoy- "taste good"
-šoᴴ : "plentiful/abundant"
This suffix can be added to both both verbal and nominal bases. With nouns it forms verbs meaning "be many N, be a lot of N" (6a,b). With verbs it means that the mass/substance described by the verb is abundant (7a,b), sometimes with idiosyncratic meaning, as in (7c).
(6a) kiθó "rock" → -kiθóšo- "there's lots of rocks, be rocky"
(6b) wííšáay "water" → -wííšáašo- "there's lots of water, plenty of water"
(7a) |nííso| "be smoke" → -níísošó- "be smoky, there's lots of smoke"
(7b) |yo`číí| "bolt of lightning flashes, be a lightning bolt" → -yočííšofíí- "be a thunderstorm"
(7c) |čiᴴfóó| "flower to bloom" → -čifóóšo- "be Spring"
-šóó : "be N, N exists"
-šóó can be added to both verb and inanimate noun stems. Added to inanimate nouns, it means "be N" (parallel to the use of -híí with animate nouns) (8). It also occurs with verbs containing an environmental medial, when describing a state or ongoing process (as opposed to an inchoative, which requires -waᴴ) (9).
(8a) θíípiw "leaf" → -θíípiwšóó- "be a leaf, it's a leaf"
(8b) ya waᴴhííx-šóó-yóó > ya wahíixšóóyóó
just shadow-be:inan-3inan.real.impfv
"it was just a shadow" (line 47)
(9) |drawʔoh|-kan-šóó > -drawʔohkanšóó-
slide-moving.water-be:inan = "be a flowing river, river to flow"
-waᴴnaᴴ : "gather N, produce N"
Suffixed only to nouns. Refers generally to harvesting, gathering, collecting, or processing the noun, with the ultimate aim of creating a food item or utilitarian object. One example appears in the story (10a), and another example is also given (10b).
(10a) θIᴴ-yóómotá-waᴴnaᴴ-sóó-`yóo-oᴴkoᴴ > θyóómotáwanásóoyóoko
inv-medicine-produce-ben-3sprox.real.impfv-prog
"(All day he(obv)) made a medicine for him(prox)" (line 68)
(10b) θíiči "hackberry" → -θíičiwána- "pick hackberries, gather hackberries"
Voice and Aspectual Suffixes
The following suffixes all have uses that include adjusting voice and valence, transitivity notions, or change of state.
-`b/-`f : detransitive
This is the general detransitivizer, deriving intransitive verbs from transitive roots/stems (11a), and used when the verb incorporates a noun root (11b). It surfaces as -`b before a vowel, and -`f before a consonant.
(11a) |číípóó| "play instrument (tr)" → -číípóob/f- "play an instrument (intr)"
(11b) počóoš-|číípóó|-`f-yóó = počóoščíípóofyóó
flute-play.instrument-detr-3inan.real.impfv
"(S/he) is playing the flute"
-:bo : "characterized by"
This includes the senses of "be characterized by, have the property of" (usually negative qualities, as in (12b)). This generally must be followed by one of the suffixes -θóó or -yoᴴč, and conditions imperfective marking.
(12a) |maᴴwoᴴ|-yiᴴ-:bo-yoᴴč = -mawóyííboyóč-
scared-tr-characterized-be:an = "be scary/frightening"
(12b) |ʔííxíí|-:bo-yoᴴč = -ʔííxííboyóč-
possess-characterized-be:an = "be covetous, mean, possessive; hoard"
-bon : applicative
The applicative -bon often has instrumental meaning, but it can also serve as a more general applicative to advance any oblique to Primary Object status.
(13) mos siʔ-as |hIᴴmaᴴ|-bon-yóó-poᴴ > mos siʔas hmábonyóópo
always thus-instr live-applic-3inan.real.impfv-habit
"(he(obv)) had always lived that way [with 'that way' promoted to P]" (line 20)
-`m : middle
Suffixed to verb stems only, and creates new middle verbs with inanimate subjects. The "middle" includes agentless passive (14a) and anticausative (14b) senses, as well as some general intransitives (14c). In most cases it has a resultative connotation (as in (14c) and (14d)), and always a focus on the affectedness of the surface S.
(14a) |hiᴴyiᴴw| "cut/sever (tr)" → -hiyim- "be cut/severed, get cut/severed"
(14b) |ʔoᴴfoᴴ+kiᴴ| "burn (tr)" → -ʔofókim- "burn (intr), be on fire, be burning"
(14c) |soᴴxiᴴ| "slough off" → -soxim- "be sloughed off, shed"
(14d) |ʔááko|-kiᴴ-saᴴk-`m = -ʔáákokísam-
seethe-by.heat-tr-mid:inan = "be boiled down"
-niᴴ : reflexive
This is normally suffixed to transitive roots/stems (15a) to derive an intransitive where the A and P are fully coreferential. However, it can sometimes be suffixed to intransitives roots/stems as well (15b). It can also carry a connotation of volition/control on the part of the subject, as contrasted to a non-overtly reflexive form implying complete lack of control — compare (16a) and (16b).
(15a) |bóočsó| "kick (tr)" → -bóočsóni- "kick oneself"
(15b) |móóhiw| "hemorrhoids" → -móóhiwní- "suffer from hemorrhoids, have hemorrhoids"
(16a) -yimíí-, "spin/rotate (unintentionally, as when acted on by an external force)"
(16b) -yimííni-, "spin/rotate/twirl in a circle (intentionally)"
-noᴴx : malefactive
The malefactive is an applicative, adding an additional Primary Object to the verb (creating a transitive from an intransitive, or a ditransitive from a monotransitive), and indicates that the action works to the detriment of the new object.
(17) |nóóy|(intr)-xáá-noᴴx = -nóošxáánox-
bent-mental-mal = "trick, deceive, lie to"
-nóó : middle/"feel"
This suffix has two uses: (A) as a suffix meaning "feel, experience" (18a,b); and (B) as a middle, parallel to -`m but used with animate as opposed to inanimate subjects. As with -`m, -nóó as a middle is used with agentless passive senses (18c,d) and "anticausatives"/some general intransitives (18e,f), all again with a strong resultative/stative sense.
(18a) sáá-|maᴴʔíí|-šóópo-nóó-siᴴ-`yóo > sáámaʔííšóóponóósiyóo
strong-throbbing.pain-head-feel-body.part.incorp-3sprox.real.impfv
"his head throbbed with pain / he felt head-throbbing.pain" (line 17)
(18b) |kaᴴnoᴴpiᴴ|-yiᴴ-nóó = -kanópiyínóó-
closed.up-tr-feel = "be constipated (= feel stopped up)"
(18c) |θóóm| "crush, press, squeeze" → -θóomnóó- "get crushed/squeezed, be crushed/squeezed"
(18d) |fčán|-nóó-íin > fčanóóʔíin
rescue-mid:an-1sg.real.impfv
"I'm saved/rescued!" (line 8)
(18e) |sp|-xáá-nóó-`yóo > sxáánóoyóo
bad-mental-mid:an-3sprox.real.impfv
"he was mistaken/wrong" (line 54)
(18f) |ʔoᴴčiᴴ| "die" → -ʔočínóó- "be dead, deceased"
-piᴴ : detransitive (non-productive)
Like -`b/-`f, -piᴴ is a general detransitivizer, but is no longer productive, and only occurs with a few lexicalized derived verbs. (It is not used with any noun-incorporating verbs.)
(19) |θóom|ká "pound (tr)" → -θóomkápi- "pound (intr)"
-saᴴk and -yiᴴ : transitivizers
Generally, -saᴴk is used to derive verbs with inanimate objects (20a) and -yiᴴ to derive verbs with animate objects (20b). However, there are some exceptions, as in (20c).
(20a) |θáá| "scoop up (intr)" → -θáásak- "scoop up (tr) (an item or substance)"
(20b) |θáá| "scoop up (intr)" → -θááyi- "scoop up (tr) (e.g., an animal or small child)"
(20c) |kičaᴴ| "eat (intr)" → -kičáyi- "eat (tr) [animate or inanimate objects]"
-siᴴ : incorporated body part
-siᴴ is required when a body part root is incorporated (as a Medial), and the possessor is coreferent with the subject of the verb. When applied to a transitive root/stem, it takes the place of the detransitivizer -`b/-`f. (21a-b) demonstrate its use, using the root |čóómíí| "break sth., often along longitudinal axis" — and cf. the alternate construction in (21c), when the the possessor is not coreferent with the verb's subject.
(21a) níí |čóómíí|-yóóna > níí čóómííyóóna
1sg break.long-3inan.real.pfv
"I broke/snapped it"
(21b) |čóómíí|-ʔxáá-siᴴ-íisa > čóómíiʔxáásiʔíisa
break.long-leg-body.part.incorp-1sg.real.pfv
"I broke my leg (I leg-broke myself)"
(21c) níí |čóómíí|-ʔxáá-sóó-`f-`yóos > níí čóómíiʔxáásóofyóos
1sg break.long-leg-ditr-detr-3sprox.real.pfv
"I broke his leg (I leg-broke him)"
-sóó : benefactive/ditransitive
This suffix adds an additional argument to the verb. It is the normal means for creating ditransitives (22a,b), and also serves as a benefactive applicative, adding an argument that the action was carried out to benefit (23a), or was done in concert with (23b). The two uses overlap to a large extent (24).
-sóó, in most contexts followed by detransitive -`b/-`f, is also used with verbs incorporating a body part medial, in which the body part's possessor is not the subject of the verb (see (21c) above). In this use there are usually no benefactive overtones, and in fact the possessor is often negatively affected, as in (21c).
(22a) |ho| "say sth. (tr)" → -hosóó- "say sth. to someone (ditr)"
(22b) |číič| "mix (tr)" → -číičsóó- "mix X into Y (ditr)"
(23a) |šaᴴθaᴴ| "guard sth. (tr)" → -šaθásóó- "guard sth. for someone (ditr/ben)"
(23b) |wóóθáá| "go (intr)" → -wóóθáásóó- "go with, accompany (tr)"
(24) |ʔííxíí|-`f-xa "give sth. (tr)" → -ʔííxíifxasóó- "give sth. to someone (ditr/ben)"
-šiᴴ : detransitive (non-productive)
-šiᴴ is a general detransitivizer, but is no longer productive, and only occurs with a few lexicalized derived verbs. (It is not used with any noun-incorporating verbs.)
(25a) |čáábóó| "pluck out (tr)" → -čáábóóši- "pluck out (intr)"
(25b) |čkáaf+´| "sweep up (tr)" → -čkáafší- "sweep up (intr)"
-θíí : "habitually/contract [disease]"
This suffix has two uses. With imperfective verbs it means "be in the habit of..., habitually..., be characterized by or prone to (as an intrinsic quality..." (26a; compare 26b). It is often used to describe occupations (as with (26c)). Its meaning can sometimes overlap with that of -:bo, as with (26d).
With perfective verbs it means "contract [disease], come down with." (Compare (26e) and (27a).) It sometimes co-occurs with -miᴴyoᴴ ("suffer disease," see below) (27b), but also occurs on its own, as in (27a).
(26a) |aᴴboᴴyóó|-θíí = -(h)abóyóóθíí-
fast-characterized = "be fast, be quick (as an intrinsic quality)" (+impfv)
(26b) |aᴴboᴴyóó|-yoᴴč = -(h)abóyóóyoč-
fast-be:an = "move fast, move quickly"
(26c) |driᴴ|-ká-θíí > -drikáθíí-
snatch-rapid.violent:an-characterized = "be a trapper" (+impfv)
(26d) |sp|-yoᴴč-θíí = -šyočθíí-
bad-be:an-characterized = "be a bad person" (+impfv)
(26e) |saᴴθóó| "sick" → -saθóóθíí- (+impfv) "be sickly, be perpetually ill"
(27a) |saᴴθóó| "sick" → -saθóóθíí- (+pfv) "get sick, fall ill"
(27b) |ʔIᴴwaᴴmaᴴ|-miᴴyoᴴ-θíí = -šámamíyoθíí-
swell-suffer.from-contract = "contract cancer, get a tumor" (+pfv)
(cf. -šámamíyo- "have cancer")
-θóó and -yoᴴč : adjectival
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-xaᴴ : causative
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-(x)áá : locative applicative/inchoative
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-waᴴ : inchoative
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-waᴴhoᴴ : resultative (non-productive)
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-yaᴴm : telic
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Instrumental Suffixes
-fóóʔ : by hand
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-kiᴴ : by heat
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-maᴴ : by mouth
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-šóón : by bodily force
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-θááč : by foot
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Other Suffixes
-aᴴfíí : weather
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-ʔáxa/-ʔxá : "noise/sound carries"
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-`ká and -xiᴴ : "rapid violent motion"
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-miᴴyoᴴ : "suffer/have illness"
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-xaᴴn : "falling/tripping"
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