Clause Combining

The primary means for linking clauses is through the switch-reference (SR) enclitics. This enclitic marks whether the subject of its clause is the same as (SS = same subject) or different from (DS = different subject) the subject of another clause, as well as some indication of the semantic link between the two clauses, although a fair amount is left to context to disambiguate.

Clauses can thus be divided into matrix clauses, which do not take an SR enclitic and are generally sentence-final, and supporting clauses, which take an SR enclitic, and are grammatically dependent on and make explicit reference to another clause in the sentence. Supporting clauses are generally dependents of the immediately following clause, especially clauses in a temporal relationship (in which, following iconic principles, the following clause takes place after the preceding clause), but some Subordinate clauses may follow, or be non-contiguous with, their matrix clause.

In single-clause sentences, obviously, the verb takes no SR marking. In two-clause sentences, one clause is supporting and the other is matrix (again, usually in the order supporting-matrix). But longer sentences are possible, in which each clause is dependent on the following clause, until the final matrix clause at the end of the sentence. (There can only be one matrix clause in a sentence, except for with certain types of apposition to express elaboration or disjunction.) An extreme example from the story is (53) below (the precise semantics and uses of the various SR markers is detailed further below).

(53) "[The pitayas] were delicious and sweet, so he grabbed another handful and gulped it down, and kept eating more and more until he was totally full, then he went off and found a tall cottonwood tree and lay down in the shade under the tree to rest." (line 56)
Čas hinyam sááwóóhaʔówóošóó-yíí ski θááwóófóotóóyo-ʔóó habóyóóθááwóófóotóošyo-ʔóó habóyóočíiθwafábonsífóotóonyó-ʔóó hokíiθóónakičayóópo-ʔóó θas šámanóoyóosoč-ʔóó sa čixíími šmonóoθyóó-ʔóó hníí haxá-čixíí hníí niwó kawáhíis kinááyóóθak-aθ pxáapáániyóoθak.
časemph hinyamvery sáá-wóóha-ʔoᴴwóóy-yóó=yíístrong-sweet-taste-3inan.real.impfv=ds:seq skiagain θááwóó-fóóʔ-yóó-yoᴴ=ʔóóhold(pl.O)-by.hand-3inan.real.pfv-mtn=ss:seq aᴴboᴴyóó-pčííθ-waᴴfaᴴ-bon-siᴴ-fóóʔ-yóóna-yoᴴ=ʔóóquickly-pack-mouth-applic-body.part.incorp-by.hand-3inan.real.pfv-mtn=ss:seq oᴴkííθ-ʔóóna-kičaᴴ-yóó-poᴴ=ʔóódur-increasing-eat-3inan.real.impfv-iter=ss:seq θascompletely ʔIᴴwaᴴmaᴴ-nóó-`yóos-oč=ʔóóbloat-feel-3sprox.real.pfv-complv=ss:seq sathen čixíí-miᴴcottonwood-aug šmoᴴ-nóóθ-yóó=ʔóóandat-find-3inan.real.impfv=ss:seq hnííthere haxá-čixíídel=cottonwood hnííthere niwóat ka-waᴴhííx3inan.poss-shade kiᴴn-(x)áá-yóó-θak=aθlie.down-loc.applic:an-3inan.real.impfv-rep=ss:consq pxáá-kpááni-`yóo-θakabilv-sleep-3sprox.real.impfv-rep

1. They tasted very sweet and then (ds)...
2. He grabbed (another handful) again and then (ss)...
3. He quickly shoved them in his mouth and then (ss)...
4. He kept eating more and more and then (ss)...
5. He felt completely full and then (ss)...
6. He went and found a tall cottonwood and then (ss)...
7. He lay down in the cottonwood's shade and consequently (ss)...
8. He could sleep. (Matrix)

There are 10 SR clitics, 5 Same-Subject and 5 Different-Subject, listed here, which are discussed in detail and exemplified below.

	SS	DS
Subordinate	=ok	=ko
Conditional/Temporal	=drá	=čí
Consequence/Location	=aθ	=om
Sequential	=ʔóó	=yíí
Simultaneous	=fin	=θáá

Subordinate: SS =ok / DS =ko

This set marks:

• Concessives ("X, (al/even-)though Y"), in the structure "Y=subord X". To imply "even though" (the event is realized), the supporting verb is inflected for realis; to imply "even if" (the event is potential), the supporting verb is irrealis. Optionally, the conjunctive particle fbó "however" can appear between the clauses. ((54) below).

• Most commonly, in complement constructions, marking the complement (=supporting) clause. Unlike in many other cases, with complement constructions, the clauses can appear in either order. I.e., to express "X (e.g., I know) that Y", one would say either "Y=subord X" or "X Y=subord". Optionally, the complementizer ʔiwí can appear at the beginning of the complement clause. There are a number of examples in the story; four are provided below in (55). (55a) illustrates the SS form, (55b) the DS form, and (55c) the DS with an irrealis verb.

As noted above, Subordinate verbs cannot take aspect inflection in suffix slot 2 or evidential inflection in suffix slot 3. The SS form =ok also cannot take the person/TAM suffix in slot 1 (see (55a)). In addition, Subordinate verbs mark negation with a verbal suffix -woy (as in (52) above), rather than the separate negative particle ki.

(54) θíimíínačimθóóyóó-ko fbó ʔo ki našíhííyóošáá
θíimíí-aᴴnaᴴčiᴴ-IᴴmIᴴ-θóó-yóó-`šáá=kogreen-good-place-be:inan-3inan.real.impfv-sens=ds:subord fbóhowever ʔofoc kineg naší-híí-yóó-`šááanimal-exist:an-3obv.real.impfv-sens
"...even though it was green and lovely (ds) there were no animals..." (line 9) (DS Subordinate = concessive)

(55a) ʔiwí pxáákičáxinónóoθ-ok košóonsaθočóoθak
ʔiwícompzr pxáá-kičaᴴ-xiᴴn-|nóóθ|-`f=okabilv-eat-nmzr:pat-find-detr=ss:subord |koᴴšóón|-saᴴk-θoᴴč-`yóo-θakthink-tr-antps-3sprox.real.impfv-rep
"He thought that (ss) he could find food" (line 45) (SS Subordinate = complement)

(55b) Spáaw kaʔóow θnóošxáánoxmayóos-ko košóósaθočóoθak.
spa-`:wdem:dist-obv káʔahó-`:wold.man-obv θIᴴ-|nóóy|-xáá-noᴴx-maᴴ-`yóos=koinv-bent-mental-mal-by.mouth-3sprox.real.pfv=ds:subord |koᴴšóón|-sak-θoᴴč-`yóo-θakthink-tr-antps-3sprox.real.impfv-rep
"He thought that (ds) the old man had tricked him" (line 51) (DS Subordinate = complement)

(55c) ... pxáásóomtoθčíin ʔiwí saθsóʔoł komíyifihi-ko
pxáá-|sóomtó|-θoᴴč-íinabilv-know-antps-1sg.real.impfv ʔiwícompzr xaθsoᴴʔ-ołperson-an.pl |koᴴmiᴴyiᴴ|-fi-hiᴴ=kocome-3pprox.irreal.pfv-dubit=ds:subord
"(I wait for people) to find out (ds) whether any people may come" (line 13) (DS Subordinate = complement, irrealis)

In a complement construction, the matrix clause can have scope over multiple supporting clauses — these will all be marked with a Subordinate clitic, with subject (co)reference in each Subordinate supporting clause made to the matrix clause. This can be seen in (56a), which has the structure in (56b), where both supporting clause A and B refer back to the matrix clause, rather than (in the case of clause A) an immediately contiguous clause.

(56a) ʔiwí hočhófáásíí-ko hníí hanáčikičaxin káá ʔááxiθínóoθsóó-ok čas sóoθhoyóos
ʔiwícompzr očhó-|fáá|-síí=ko,deont-wait.for-3obv.irreal.impfv=ds:subord, hnííthere aᴴnaᴴčiᴴ-kičaᴴ-xiᴴngood-eat-nmzr:pat káá3obv ʔááxi-θIᴴ-|nóóθ|-sóó=ok3.thm-inv-find-ben=ss:subord časemph sóó-θIᴴ-|ho|-`yóostr-inv-say-antps-3sprox.real.pfv
"he had said to wait for him to show him where the good food was" (line 57)

(56b)

1. [that (he) should wait for him(obv)]_A=ds:subord
2. [(that he(obv)) shows him the good food]_B=ss:subord
3. [(he(obv)) said to him that:]_MATRIX

Conditional/Temporal: SS =drá / DS =čí

This set marks:

• Conditionals and counterfactuals. For "if X then Y" these have the structure: "X=cond Y". Optionally, the supporting clause may be preceded by boł "if". The supporting clause is irrealis, while the matrix clause can be either irrealis or future — irrealis for counterfactuals, future for regular conditionals. However, when SS =drá is used, its verb does not take person/TAM marking in slot 1. There are no examples of conditionals or counterfactuals in the story, but three invented examples are given below, for SS conditional (57a), DS conditional (57b), and DS counterfactual (57c).

• Temporal elaboration, backgrounded statements situating the action in time. These only appear in DS form with =čí, and take no person/TAM or other inflection. ((58) below.)

Conditional/Temporal verbs cannot take aspectual inflection in slot 2, and SS (conditional) =drá, and DS =čí when used as temporal elaboration do not take person/TAM or evidential inflection either. However, DS Conditional =čí can take evidential (slot 3) and person/TAM (slot 1) inflection, while SS Conditional can take evidential inflection.

(57a) Woyóok wafíxanxá-drá ʔaxačočááʔíim
woyóok3sprox |waᴴfiᴴ|-xaᴴn-xaᴴ=čítopple-tripping-caus=ss:cond |ʔaᴴxač|-yoᴴč-(x)áá-íimdistant-be:an-become:an-1sg.fut.impfv
"If I trip her (ss) I'm going to leave."

(57b) Níí wafíxanxápi-drá ʔaxačočáay
níí1sg |waᴴfiᴴ|-xaᴴn-xaᴴ-pi=drátopple-tripping-caus-3sprox.irreal.pfv=ds:cond |ʔaᴴxač|-yoᴴč-(x)áá-`ydistant-be:an-become:an-3sprox.fut.impfv
"If I trip her (ds) she's going to leave."

(57a) Níí wafíxanxápi-drá ʔaxačočáápi
níí1sg |waᴴfiᴴ|-xaᴴn-xaᴴ-pi=drátopple-tripping-caus-3sprox.irreal.pfv=ds:cond |ʔaᴴxač|-yoᴴč-(x)áá-piᴴdistant-be:an-become:an-3sprox.irreal.impfv
"If I had tripped her (ds) she would have left."

(58) Mixíyačoči-čí θyóómotáwanásóoyóoko
|miᴴxiᴴyaᴴ|-čI`čiᴴ=číday.pass-all.of=ds:temp θIᴴ-yóómotá-waᴴnaᴴ-sóó-`yóo-oᴴkoᴴinv-medicine-produce-ben-3sprox.real.impfv-prog
"All that day (ds), (he(obv)) was making medicine for him(prox)" (line 68)

Consequence/Location: SS =aθ / DS =om

This set marks:

• Consequence, including cause, result, and purpose. "X=consq Y" can thus have implications ranging from "Y because X / because X, Y" and "X, and so/as a result Y" (59a), and "X in order that Y" (59b). Optionally, the conjunctive particle si "thus" can appear before the matrix clause, but this is not common. Note that consequence linkages can frequently also be expressed through use of the simple Sequential SR markers (see below). For the sense of "because," the alternate order of clauses (Y X=consq) is also possible, though uncommon, and requires the adverb h(aʔ)áaʔmi "soon, since, because" at the beginning of the supporting clause. This ordering seems to essentially be an extra elaboration by the speaker to clarify cause, which was not originally planned to be part of the utterance. In any event, it occurs once in the story, see (59c).

• Location. To express "X, where/in the place that Y" one can say "Y=loc X" (as in (60a,b)). The verb in the supporting clause is usually preceded by a locative adverb, híí "here" or hníí "there" (as in (60b)) but doesn't have to be. The notion of "where Y happens" can sometimes also be expressed using a locative participle, but this is a deverbal and cannot mark person or participant coreference, so is avoided in more complex contexts.

• Note that for both (60a) and (60b), either reading (consequence or location) is possible, illustrating a likely context where one of the senses could have led to the other. (From a comparative perspective, the locative meaning is almost certainly the original one; in most other Moose languages this is the cognate morphemes' only meaning, and consequence is indicated through Sequential markers.)

(59a) hinyam soʔsoxwoyóopoθak-aθ čsááxanóoyóosθak
hinyamreally soʔ-|soᴴxIᴴwoᴴ|-`yóo-poᴴ-θak=aθoften-make.mischief-3sprox.real.impfv-iter-rep=ss:consq |čsáá|-xaᴴ-nóó-`yóos-θakexit-caus-mid:an-3sprox.real.pfv-rep
"he was banished (ss) because he caused too much trouble / he caused too much trouble (ss) and so was banished" (line 1) (SS Consequence = cause/reason)

(59b) ... ʔááxihosóósisa-om níí šmokičaxinxihoxbíima
ʔááxi-|ho|-sóó-sisa=om3.thm-say-ditr-1sg.irreal.pfv=ds:consq níí1sg šmoᴴ-kičaᴴ-xiᴴn-|xiᴴhIᴴx|-`b-íimaandat-eat-nmzr:pat-fetch(sg.O)-detr-1sg.fut.pfv=ds:simult,
"Tell me (where the food is) (ds) so that I can go get it" (line 38) (DS Consequence = purpose)

(59c) ʔočíčinóoyóoko, háaʔmi spáaw nohóow kóóha-woyóok θkííxáayóoko-om
|ʔoᴴčiᴴčiᴴ|-nóó-`yóo-oᴴkoᴴ,pain-feel-3sprox.real.impfv-prog, háaʔmisince spa-`:wdem:dist-obv nohó-`:wworm-obv kóóha=woyóokinsv=3sprox |θkíí|-(x)áá-`yóo-oᴴkoᴴ=omexist-loc.applic:an-3sprox.real.impfv-prog=ds:consq
"he was in great pain — since the worm was in him (ds)" (line 68) (DS Consequence = cause [elaboration])

(60a) ... hníí spáaw nohóow θkííxááyóó-om hinyam sááʔočíčinóoyóošo
hnííthere spa-`:wdem:dist-obv nohó-`:wworm-obv |θkíí|-(x)áá-yóó=omexist-loc.applic:an-3inan.real.impfv=ds:loc/consq hinyamvery sáá-|ʔoᴴčiᴴčiᴴ|-nóó-`yóo-iᴴšoᴴstrong-pain-feel-3sprox.real.impfv-incept
"there where the worm was (in his stomach) (ds) he felt a great pain / because the worm was there he felt a great pain" (line 60) (DS, location or cause)

(60b) níí ki ʔííxííyóonyó-aθ skóo-hinka póopáánixáásíípo
níí1sg kineg |ʔííxíí|-yóó-nyó=aθpossess-3inan.real.impfv-stat=ss:loc/consq skóo=n-kainsv=1sg.poss-3inan póóʔ-|kpááni|-(x)áá-síí-poᴴhabit-sleep-loc.applic:an-3inan.irreal.impfv-habit,
"(How come) I have no (house) where I can sleep / ... I have no (house) to (=in order to) sleep there?" (line 22) (SS, location or purpose)

Sequential: SS =ʔóó / DS =yíí

The Sequential marks that the supporting clause takes place prior to the following matrix clause (the order of clauses is strict): to express "X and then Y," one says "X=seq Y". It is primarily used simply to express sequential events, but can also be used for notions of causation and result. (To more strongly emphasize the idea that one event caused or resulted in another, the Consequence SR set would be used.) Examples of SS (61a) and DS (61b) are given below.

(61a) šmomíimómayóonθak-ʔóó šmopáániyóoθak
šmoᴴ-|míimóma|-yóóna-θak=ʔóóandat-drink-3inan.real.pfv-rep=ss:seq šmoᴴ-|kpááni|-`yóo-θakandat-sleep-3sprox.real.impfv-rep
"he drank it (the medicine) and then (ss) went to sleep" (line 69) (SS Sequential)

(61b) ... sčóyiyóonyó-yíí hóómóoʔxáyóonyó
|sčóyi|-yóóna-yoᴴ=yííask-3obv.real.pfv-mtn=ds:seq |óómóo|-ʔxá-yóóna-yoᴴgroan-sound-3obv.real.pfv-mtn
"(he(prox)) asked him(obv) (where the food was) and then (ds) he(obv) groaned" (line 31) (DS Sequential)

Simultaneous: SS =fin / DS =θáá

The Simultaneous marks a supporting clause that occurs at the same time as the matrix clause; this can include states, descriptions, and gnomic statements, which don't have a set/delimited period they occur during. Examples of SS (62a) and DS (62b) are given below.

(62a) sčíkičáxinónóoθyóoko-fin hokíiθhaháačiyóoθak
ʔI`čIᴴ-|kičaᴴ|-xiᴴn-noᴴ+nóóθ-`f-`yóo-oᴴkoᴴ=fintry-eat-nmzr:pat-rdp+find-detr-3sprox.real.impfv-prog=ss:simult oᴴkííθ-ha+|háačí|-`yóo-θakdur-rdp+walk(sg)-3sprox.real.impfv-rep
"he walked around for a long time looking for something to eat / he was looking for something to eat while (ss) walking around" (line 46) (SS Simultaneous)

(62b) θyóómotáwanásóoyóoko-θáá spa wa-sayihpan kinááyóóko
θIᴴ-yóómotá-waᴴnaᴴ-sóó-`yóo-oᴴkoᴴ=θááinv-medicine-produce-ben-3sprox.real.impfv-prog=ds:simult spadem:dist wa=saᴴyiᴴhiᴴpaᴴnsuprs=mat |kiᴴn|-(x)áá-yóó-oᴴkoᴴlie.down-loc.applic:an-3inan.real.impfv-prog
"(he(obv)) made medicine for him(prox) while (ds) (he(prox)) lay on the mat" (line 68) (DS Simultaneous)