Coverbs

Coverbs are verbal elements that are used to modify another verb or subverb, to which they are prefixed. They do not specify any particular action in themselves. There may be more than one coverb modifying a verb or subverb, where the coverbs are ordered in increasing significance. However, there is usually just one coverb in a clause, only occasionally two, and much more rarely more than two. Coverbs cannot be used by themselves or in places where a normal verb is required, e.g. subverbs prefixed by coverbs must still in turn be prefixed by a verb stem composed of a main verb and zero or more subverbs. Note that coverbs typically go before incorporated nouns, which are treated as part of the verb itself.

Coverbs preceding main verbs modify the main verbs themselves, and in turn are modified by any following subverbs. Coverbs preceding subverbs specifically modify the subverb in question and not the main verb.

Subverbs

Subverbs are verbal elements that modify verb stems, composed of a main verb and potentially one or more coverbs and/or other subverbs, to produce a new verb stem with a different meaning. The meaning of subverbs can be modified with coverbs. Subverbs are placed after the verb stem that they modify, with any coverbs modifying the subverb itself being placed between it and the verb stem in question.

Manner adjectival verbs from verbs

Any imperfective verb can become intransitive simply by omitting any arguments other than the subject, and hence becomes equivalent to a manner adjectival verb automatically as long as arguments are omitted. However, perfective verbs cannot be used as manner adjectival verbs automatically unless the following ending:

/tso/ <có>

is added, which results in a corresponding manner adjectival verb that is imperfective and intransitive.

Adjectival verbs from nouns

A noun can be converted into an adjectival verb indicating something with the quality of that noun with the suffix:

/(*)la/ <(*)la>

Verbs formed by this are imperfective.

* is, if following a consonant, the filler vowel if present and /a/ if not present.

Opposite of adjectival verbs

An adjectival verb can be converted into its opposite with the marker:

/nɒ/ <nå>

Causative

There are two causative markers:

Static causative: /nu/ <nu>

Dynamic causative: /je/ <jé>

This marker is attached to the verb stem, and forms a new verb stem. This verb stem will also be perfective, and take the /(a)t/ <(a)t> imperfective ending, for the dynamic causative; it will be imperfective for the static causative.

These demote the nominative argument to accusative case, the accusative argument to dative case, and the dative argument to allative case.

Passive

There are two passive markers:

Static passive: /sɛ/ <se>

Dynamic passive: /kɛ/ <ke>

Both of these markers are placed either directly after the verb stem, and form a new verb stem. This verb stem will also be perfective, and take the  /(a)t/ <(a)t> imperfective ending, for the dynamic passive; it will be imperfective for the static passive.

These demote the nominative argument to ablative case or eliminates it, and promotes the accusative argument to nominative case, and the dative argument to accusative case.

Note that there are verb stems that are lexically passive that do not take this marker (unless it is being applied to a causative being applied to them). There are also verb stems that are lexically middle voice to which this marker is typically not applied (causatives aside).

Comparative and superlative

The comparative, superlative, and elative (a stronger superlative) are formed by attaching endings to the stems of adjectival verbs, to form new adjectival verbs (which are imperfective).

These endings are:

Comparative: /tɛ/ <te>
Superlative: /tɔnɛ/ <tone>
Elative: /tutːɛ/ <tutte>

Things being compared with the comparative (the superlative and elative cannot do comparisons) are in genitive case. Sets of things things are out of are in ablative case.

Nouns can be formed from the comparative, superlative, and elative by attaching the instance marking:

/(a)mɛɣ(a)/ <(a)meg(a)>
The preceding /a/ is present if after a consonant.
The following /a/ is the filler vowel.

or:

/(a)wak(ɛ)/ <(a)wak(e)>
The /a/ is present if after a consonant.
The /ɛ/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender C.

Verb agreement marking order

Verb agreement markers are normally in the reverse order of the corresponding verb arguments. Hence they typically take place - manner - time - direct object - indirect object - subject order. Note that in cases that word order is changed to make a particular verb argument other than the subject the topic, the order of the corresponding verb agreement markers does not change.

Verb marking for nominative role

1st person

Singular: /ta/ <ta>, Dual: /tæ̃ː/ <ten>, Plural: /tɛi̯/ <tei>

2nd person

Singular: /nɛ/ <ne>, Dual: /næ̃ː/ <nen>, Plural: /nɛi̯/ <nei>

3rd person

Gender A

Singular: /ðɛ/ <de>, Dual: /sɒ̃ːt/ <sont>, Plural: /sa/ <sa>

Gender B

Singular: /ðɒ/ <då>, Dual: /sɪ̃ːt/ <sint>, Plural: /si/ <si>

Gender C

Singular: /ðo/ <dó>, Dual: /sʊ̃ːt/ <sunt>, Plural: /su/ <su>

Verb marking for accusative role

1st person

Singular: /wi/ <wi>, Dual: /wæ̃ː/ <wen>, Plural: /wɛi̯/ <wei>

2nd person

Singular: /ʎa/ <ĺa>, Dual: /ʎɑ̃ː/ <ĺan>, Plural: /ʎɔ/ <ĺo>

3rd person

Gender A

Singular: /ɕi/ <śi>, Dual: /βʊ̃ːt/ <bunt>, Plural: /βu/ <bu>

Gender B

Singular: /ɕɛ/ <śe>, Dual: /βɑ̃ːt/ <bant>, Plural: /βa/ <ba>

Gender C

Singular: /ɕa/ <śa>, Dual: /βæ̃ːt/ <bent>, Plural: /βɛ/ <be>

Reflexive

Singular: /ɲɛ/ <ńe>, Dual: /ɲæ̃ː/ <ńen>, /ɲɛi̯/ <ńei>

Verb marking for dative role

1st person

Singular: /kɛi̯/ <kei>, Dual: /kæ̃ː/ <ken>, Plural: /kɔu̯/ <kou>

2nd person

Singular: /ɣɛi̯/ <gei>, Dual: /ɣæ̃ː/ <gen>, Plural: /ɣɔu̯/ <gou>

3rd person

Gender A

Singular: /xa/ <ha>, Dual: /tɕæ̃ːt/ <ćent>, Plural: /tɕɛ/ <će>

Gender B

Singular: /xɛ/ <he>, Dual: /tɕɑ̃ːt/ <ćant>, Plural: /tɕa/ <ća>

Gender C

Singular: /xu/ <hu>, Dual: /tɕæ̃ːt/ <ćent>, Plural: /tɕɛ/ <će>

Reflexive

Singular: /βɛi̯/ <bei>, Dual: /βæ̃ː/ <ben>, Plural: /βɔu̯/ <bou>

Verb marking for indirectivity

Indirectivity is marked by placing a marker after the agreement markers and before the imperfective marker:

/re/ <ré>

Verb marking for aspect

For producing new imperfective stems from existing perfective stems, there exist a number of different suffixes that are attached to the end of the perfective stem. Which one is used in practice is specific to the particular perfective stem (but sometimes more than one can coexist relative to a particular perfective stem), but here are a number of them:

/(ɛ)ð/ <(e)d>
The /ɛ/ is present if following a consonant.

/(i)nː/ <(i)nn>
The /i/ is present if following a consonant.

/(a)t/ <(a)t>
The /a/ is present if following a consonant.

/(a)βtɛ/ <(a)bte> (The /βt/ is pronounced as [ɸt] except in very careful speech.)
The /a/ is present if following a consonant.

/(ɣ)al/ <(g)al>
The /ɣ/ is present if following a vowel.

/(ɛ)tse/ <(e)cé>
The /ɛ/ is present if following a consonant.

/(ɛ)kɪ̃ː/ <(e)kin>
The /ɛ/ is present if following a consonant.

/(ɛ)sɔ/ <(e)so>
The /ɛ/ is present if following a consonant.

Note that there may also be stem alternations as well, but these are more irregular and primarily occur in more common verbs. Some verbs may simply undergo suppetion for perfective and imperfective stems, and not use theses suffixes at all.

Mood

Indicative

A nominative agreement marker is present, and no other mood-specific markers.

Imperative

In the place and position of the nominative agreement marker, a marker with the following form is used:

1st Person

Dual: /mɪ̃ː/ <min>, Plural: /mi/ <mi>

2nd Person

Singular: ∅ Dual: /(ɣ)ɑ̃ː/ <(g)an>, Plural: /(ɣ)ɛ/ <(g)e>
The /ɣ/ is present if after a vowel.

Subjunctive

The following marker is placed after any imperfective marker:

/(w)ɒ/ <(w)å>
The /w/ is present if after a vowel.

Optative

The following marker is placed after any imperfective marker:

/(a)ma/ <(a)ma>
The preceding /a/ is present if after a consonant.

Agent nouns from verbs

A verb can be converted to a noun that marks its agent with this suffix placed after its perfective stem (and any causative marker, which may be used):

/(ɛ)min(a)/ <(e)min(a)>
The /ɛ/ is present if after a consonant.
The /a/ is the filler vowel.

This can be used with adjectival verbs, to create nouns that are what those verbs specify, and with causatives of adjectival nouns, to create nouns that make something else be what those verbs specify.

Nouns formed by this take gender C.

Patient nouns from verbs

/(a)ɣɛt(ɛ)/ <(a)get(e)>
The /a/ is present if after a consonant.
The /ɛ/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender B.

Implements employed for verbs

/(i)βɔn(a)/ <(i)bon(a)>
The /i/ is present if after a consonant.
The /a/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender B.

Characteristic locations of verbs

/juk(a)/ <juk(a)>
The /a/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender A.

Characteristic substances, items involved in verbs

/(ɛ)ɕɔɣ(ɛ)/ <(e)śog(e)>
The first /ɛ/ is present if after a consonant.
The second /ɛ/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender A.

Result nouns from verbs

Noun indicating the result of an action:

/(i)nɒs(ɛ)/ <(i)nås(e)>
The /i/ is present if after a consonant.
The /ɛ/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender B.

Abstract nouns from verbs

Noun indicating an action in abstract:

/(ɛ)lɛt(i)/ <(e)let(i)>
The /ɛ/ is present if after a consonant.
The /i/ is the filler vowel.

or:

/(i)sɛx(a)/ <(i)seh(a)>
The /i/ is present if after a consonant.
The /a/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender C.

Instance nouns from verbs

/(a)mɛɣ(a)/ <(a)meg(a)>
The preceding /a/ is present if after a consonant.
The following /a/ is the filler vowel.

or:

/(a)wak(ɛ)/ <(a)wak(e)>
The /a/ is present if after a consonant.
The /ɛ/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender C.

Property nouns from adjectival verbs

/(a)tur(ɛ)/ <(a)tur(e)>
The /a/ is present if after a consonant.
The /ɛ/ is the filler vowel.

Nouns formed by this take gender C.

Adverbs from charcteristic manner of adjectival verbs

/(a)ri/ <(a)ri>
The /a/ is present if after a consonant.

Interrogative

The following clitic is placed after any imperfective marker or mood marker in the last clause in a sentence:

/pa/ <pa>